Among birds, the ptarmigan, already mentioned, must be considered a remarkable case of special adaptation. Another is a South–American goatsucker (Caprimulgus rupestris) which rests in the bright sunshine on little bare rocky islets in the Upper Rio Negro, where its unusually light colours so closely resemble those of the rock and sand, that it can scarcely be detected till trodden upon.
The Duke of Argyll, in his “Reign of Law,” has pointed16 out the admirable adaptation of the colours of the woodcock to its protection. The various browns and yellows and pale ash-colour that occur in fallen leaves are all reproduced in its plumage, so that when according to its habit it rests upon the ground under trees, it is almost impossible to detect it. In snipes the colours are modified so as to be equally in harmony with the prevalent forms and colours of marshy18 vegetation. Mr. J. M. Lester, in a paper read before the Rugby School Natural History Society, observes:—“The wood-dove, when perched amongst the branches of its favourite fir, is scarcely discernible; whereas, were it among some lighter19 foliage, the blue and purple tints20 in its plumage would far sooner betray it. The robin21 redbreast too, although it might be thought that the red on its breast made it much easier to be seen, is in reality not at all endangered by it, since it generally contrives22 to get among some russet or yellow fading leaves, where the red matches very well with the autumn tints, and the brown of the rest of the body with the bare branches.”
Reptiles23 offer us many similar examples. The most arboreal lizards24, the iguanas25, are as green as the leaves they feed upon, and the slender whip-snakes are rendered almost invisible as they glide26 among the foliage by a similar colouration. How difficult it is sometimes to catch sight of the little green tree-frogs sitting on the leaves of a small plant enclosed in a glass case in the Zoological Gardens; yet how much better concealed27 must they be among the fresh green damp foliage of a marshy forest. There is a North–American frog found on lichen-covered rocks and walls, which is so coloured as exactly to resemble them, and as long as it remains28 quiet would certainly escape detection. Some of the geckos which cling motionless on the trunks of trees in the tropics, are of such curiously29 marbled colours as to match exactly with the bark they rest upon.
In every part of the tropics there are tree-snakes that twist among boughs30 and shrubs31, or lie coiled up on the dense32 masses of foliage. These are of many distinct groups, and comprise both venomous and harmless genera; but almost all of them are of a beautiful green colour, sometimes more or less adorned with white or dusky bands and spots. There can be little doubt that this colour is doubly useful to them, since it will tend to conceal them from their enemies, and will lead their prey to approach them unconscious of danger. Dr. Gunther informs me that there is only one genus of true arboreal snakes (Dipsas) whose colours are rarely green, but are of various shades of black, brown, and olive, and these are all nocturnal reptiles, and there can be little doubt conceal themselves during the day in holes, so that the green protective tint would be useless to them, and they accordingly retain the more usual reptilian33 hues34.
Fishes present similar instances. Many flat fish, as for example the flounder and the skate, are exactly the colour of the gravel36 or sand on which they habitually37 rest. Among the marine38 flower gardens of an Eastern coral reef the fishes present every variety of gorgeous colour, while the river fish even of the tropics rarely if ever have gay or conspicuous39 markings. A very curious case of this kind of adaptation occurs in the sea-horses (Hippocampus) of Australia, some of which bear long foliaceous appendages40 resembling seaweed, and are of a brilliant red colour; and they are known to live among seaweed of the same hue35, so that when at rest they must be quite invisible. There are now in the aquarium41 of the Zoological Society some slender green pipe-fish which fasten themselves to any object at the bottom by their prehensile42 tails, and float about with the current, looking exactly like some simple cylindrical43 alg?.
It is, however, in the insect world that this principle of the adaptation of animals to their environment is most fully44 and strikingly developed. In order to understand how general this is, it is necessary to enter somewhat into details, as we shall thereby45 be better able to appreciate the significance of the still more remarkable phenomena46 we shall presently have to discuss. It seems to be in proportion to their sluggish47 motions or the absence of other means of defence, that insects possess the protective colouring. In the tropics there are thousands of species of insects which rest during the day clinging to the bark of dead or fallen trees; and the greater portion of these are delicately mottled with gray and brown tints, which though symmetrically disposed and infinitely48 varied49, yet blend so completely with the usual colours of the bark, that at two or three feet distance they are quite undistinguishable. In some cases a species is known to frequent only one species of tree. This is the case with the common South American long-horned beetle50 (Onychocerus scorpio) which, Mr. Bates informed me, is found only on a rough-barked tree, called Tapiribá, on the Amazon. It is very abundant, but so exactly does it resemble the bark in colour and rugosity, and so closely does it cling to the branches, that until it moves it is absolutely invisible! An allied51 species (O. concentricus) is found only at Pará, on a distinct species of tree, the bark of which it resembles with equal accuracy. Both these insects are abundant, and we may fairly conclude that the protection they derive52 from this strange concealment53 is at least one of the causes that enable the race to flourish.
Many of the species of Cicindela, or tiger beetle, will illustrate54 this mode of protection. Our common Cicindela campestris frequents grassy55 banks, and is of a beautiful green colour, while C. maritima, which is found only on sandy sea-shores, is of a pale bronzy yellow, so as to be almost invisible. A great number of the species found by myself in the Malay islands are similarly protected. The beautiful Cicindela gloriosa, of a very deep velvety56 green colour, was only taken upon wet mossy stones in the bed of a mountain stream, where it was with the greatest difficulty detected. A large brown species (C. heros) was found chiefly on dead leaves in forest paths; and one which was never seen except on the wet mud of salt marshes58 was of a glossy59 olive so exactly the colour of the mud as only to be distinguished60 when the sun shone, by its shadow! Where the sandy beach was coralline and nearly white, I found a very pale Cicindela; wherever it was volcanic61 and black, a dark species of the same genus was sure to be met with.
There are in the East small beetles62 of the family Buprestid? which generally rest on the midrib of a leaf, and the naturalist63 often hesitates before picking them off, so closely do they resemble pieces of bird’s dung. Kirby and Spence mention the small beetle Onthophilus sulcatus as being like the seed of an umbelliferous plant; and another small weevil, which is much persecuted64 by predatory beetles of the genus Harpalus, is of the exact colour of loamy soil, and was found to be particularly abundant in loam65 pits. Mr. Bates mentions a small beetle (Chlamys pilula) which was undistinguishable by the eye from the dung of caterpillars66, while some of the Cassid?, from their hemispherical forms and pearly gold colour, resemble glittering dew-drops upon the leaves.
A number of our small brown and speckled weevils at the approach of any object roll off the leaf they are sitting on, at the same time drawing in their legs and antenn?, which fit so perfectly67 into cavities for their reception that the insect becomes a mere4 oval brownish lump, which it is hopeless to look for among the similarly coloured little stones and earth pellets among which it lies motionless.
The distribution of colour in butterflies and moths68 respectively is very instructive from this point of view. The former have all their brilliant colouring on the upper surface of all four wings, while the under surface is almost always soberly coloured, and often very dark and obscure. The moths on the contrary have generally their chief colour on the hind70 wings only, the upper wings being of dull, sombre, and often imitative tints, and these generally conceal the hind wings when the insects are in repose71. This arrangement of the colours is therefore eminently72 protective, because the butterfly always rests with his wings raised so as to conceal the dangerous brilliancy of his upper surface. It is probable that if we watched their habits sufficiently73 we should find the under surface of the wings of butterflies very frequently imitative and protective. Mr. T. W. Wood has pointed out that the little orange-tip butterfly often rests in the evening on the green and white flower heads of an umbelliferous plant, and that when observed in this position the beautiful green and white mottling of the under surface completely assimilates with the flower heads and renders the creature very difficult to be seen. It is probable that the rich dark colouring of the under side of our peacock, tortoiseshell, and red-admiral butterflies answers a similar purpose.
Two curious South American butterflies that always settle on the trunks of trees (Gynecia dirce and Callizona acesta) have the under surface curiously striped and mottled, and when viewed obliquely75 must closely assimilate with the appearance of the furrowed76 bark of many kinds of trees. But the most wonderful and undoubted case of protective resemblance in a butterfly which I have ever seen, is that of the common Indian Kallima inachis, and its Malayan ally, Kallima paralekta. The upper surface of these insects is very striking and showy, as they are of a large size, and are adorned with a broad band of rich orange on a deep bluish ground. The under side is very variable in colour, so that out of fifty specimens77 no two can be found exactly alike, but every one of them will be of some shade of ash or brown or ochre, such as are found among dead, dry, or decaying leaves. The apex78 of the upper wings is produced into an acute point, a very common form in the leaves of tropical shrubs and trees, and the lower wings are also produced into a short narrow tail. Between these two points runs a dark curved line exactly representing the midrib of a leaf, and from this radiate on each side a few oblique74 lines, which serve to indicate the lateral79 veins80 of a leaf. These marks are more clearly seen on the outer portion of the base of the wings, and on the inner side towards the middle and apex, and it is very curious to observe how the usual marginal and transverse stri? of the group are here modified and strengthened so as to become adapted for an imitation of the venation of a leaf. We come now to a still more extraordinary part of the imitation, for we find representations of leaves in every stage of decay, variously blotched and mildewed81 and pierced with holes, and in many cases irregularly covered with powdery black dots gathered into patches and spots, so closely resembling the various kinds of minute fungi82 that grow on dead leaves that it is impossible to avoid thinking at first sight that the butterflies themselves have been attacked by real fungi.
But this resemblance, close as it is, would be of little use if the habits of the insect did not accord with it. If the butterfly sat upon leaves or upon flowers, or opened its wings so as to expose the upper surface, or exposed and moved its head and antenn? as many other butterflies do, its disguise would be of little avail. We might be sure, however, from the analogy of many other cases, that the habits of the insect are such as still further to aid its deceptive83 garb84; but we are not obliged to make any such supposition, since I myself had the good fortune to observe scores of Kallima paralekta, in Sumatra, and to capture many of them, and can vouch85 for the accuracy of the following details. These butterflies frequent dry forests and fly very swiftly. They were never seen to settle on a flower or a green leaf, but were many times lost sight of in a bush or tree of dead leaves. On such occasions they were generally searched for in vain, for while gazing intently at the very spot where one had disappeared, it would often suddenly dart86 out, and again vanish twenty or fifty yards further on. On one or two occasions the insect was detected reposing87, and it could then be seen how completely it assimilates itself to the surrounding leaves. It sits on a nearly upright twig88, the wings fitting closely back to back, concealing the antenn? and head, which are drawn89 up between their bases. The little tails of the hind wing touch the branch, and form a perfect stalk to the leaf, which is supported in its place by the claws of the middle pair of feet, which are slender and inconspicuous. The irregular outline of the wings gives exactly the perspective effect of a shrivelled leaf. We thus have size, colour, form, markings, and habits, all combining together to produce a disguise which may be said to be absolutely perfect; and the protection which it affords is sufficiently indicated by the abundance of the individuals that possess it.
The Rev17. Joseph Greene has called attention to the striking harmony between the colours of those British moths which are on the wing in autumn and winter, and the prevailing90 tints of nature at those seasons. In autumn various shades of yellow and brown prevail, and he shows that out of fifty-two species that fly at this season, no less than forty-two are of corresponding colours. Orgyia antiqua, O. gonostigma, the genera Xanthia, Gl?a, and Ennomos are examples. In winter, gray and silvery tints prevail, and the genus Chematobia and several species of Hybernia which fly during this season are of corresponding hues. No doubt if the habits of moths in a state of nature were more closely observed, we should find many cases of special protective resemblance. A few such have already been noticed. Agriopis aprilina, Acronycta psi, and many other moths which rest during the day on the north side of the trunks of trees can with difficulty be distinguished from the grey and green lichens91 that cover them. The lappet moth69 (Gastropacha querci) closely resembles both in shape and colour a brown dry leaf; and the well-known buff-tip moth, when at rest is like the broken end of a lichen-covered branch. There are some of the small moths which exactly resemble the dung of birds dropped on leaves, and on this point Mr. A. Sidgwick, in a paper read before the Rugby School Natural History Society, gives the following original observation:—“I myself have more than once mistaken Cilix compressa, a little white and grey moth, for a piece of bird’s dung dropped upon a leaf, and vice92 versa the dung for the moth. Bryophila Glandifera and Perla are the very image of the mortar93 walls on which they rest; and only this summer, in Switzerland, I amused myself for some time in watching a moth, probably Larentia tripunctaria, fluttering about quite close to me, and then alighting on a wall of the stone of the district which it so exactly matched as to be quite invisible a couple of yards off.” There are probably hosts of these resemblances which have not been observed, owing to the difficulty of finding many of the species in their stations of natural repose. Caterpillars are also similarly protected. Many exactly resemble in tint the leaves they feed upon; others are like little brown twigs94, and many are so strangely marked or humped, that when motionless they can hardly be taken to be living creatures at all. Mr. Andrew Murray has remarked how closely the larva of the peacock moth (Saturnia pavonia-minor) harmonizes in its ground colour with that of the young buds of heather on which it feeds, and that the pink spots with which it is decorated correspond with the flowers and flower-buds of the same plant.
The whole order of Orthoptera, grasshoppers95, locusts96, crickets, &c., are protected by their colours harmonizing with that of the vegetation or the soil on which they live, and in no other group have we such striking examples of special resemblance. Most of the tropical Mantid? and Locustid? are of the exact tint of the leaves on which they habitually repose, and many of them in addition have the veinings of their wings modified so as exactly to imitate that of a leaf. This is carried to the furthest possible extent in the wonderful genus, Phyllium, the “walking leaf,” in which not only are the wings perfect imitations of leaves in every detail, but the thorax and legs are flat, dilated97, and leaf-like; so that when tho living insect is resting among the foliage on which it feeds, the closest observation is often unable to distinguish between the animal and the vegetable.
The whole family of the Phasmid?, or spectres, to which this insect belongs, is more or less imitative, and a great number of the species are called “walking-stick insects,” from their singular resemblance to twigs and branches. Some of these are a foot long and as thick as one’s finger, and their whole colouring, form, rugosity, and the arrangement of the head, legs, and antenn?, are such as to render them absolutely identical in appearance with dead sticks. They hang loosely about shrubs in the forest, and have the extraordinary habit of stretching out their legs unsymmetrically, so as to render the deception98 more complete. One of these creatures obtained by myself in Borneo (Ceroxylus laceratus) was covered over with foliaceous excrescences of a clear olive green colour, so as exactly to resemble a stick grown over by a creeping moss57 or jungermannia. The Dyak who brought it me assured me it was grown over with moss although alive, and it was only after a most minute examination that I could convince myself it was not so.
We need not adduce any more examples to show how important are the details of form and of colouring in animals, and that their very existence may often depend upon their being by these means concealed from their enemies. This kind of protection is found apparently99 in every class and order, for it has been noticed wherever we can obtain sufficient knowledge of the details of an animal’s life-history. It varies in degree, from the mere absence of conspicuous colour or a general harmony with the prevailing tints of nature, up to such a minute and detailed100 resemblance to inorganic101 or vegetable structures as to realize the talisman102 of the fairy tale, and to give its possessor the power of rendering103 itself invisible.
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1
conformity
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| n.一致，遵从，顺从 | |
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tint
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| n.淡色，浅色；染发剂；vt.着以淡淡的颜色 | |
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conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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crouching
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| v.屈膝，蹲伏( crouch的现在分词 ) | |
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jaguar
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| n.美洲虎 | |
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vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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concealing
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，遮住( conceal的现在分词 ) | |
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prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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arboreal
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| adj.树栖的；树的 | |
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spotted
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| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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puma
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| 美洲豹 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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marshy
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| adj.沼泽的 | |
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lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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robin
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| n.知更鸟，红襟鸟 | |
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contrives
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| （不顾困难地）促成某事( contrive的第三人称单数 )； 巧妙地策划，精巧地制造（如机器）； 设法做到 | |
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reptiles
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| n.爬行动物，爬虫( reptile的名词复数 ) | |
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lizards
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| n.蜥蜴( lizard的名词复数 ) | |
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iguanas
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| n. 美洲蜥蜴 名词iguana的复数形式 | |
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glide
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| n./v.溜，滑行；(时间)消逝 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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shrubs
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| 灌木( shrub的名词复数 ) | |
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dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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reptilian
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| adj.（像）爬行动物的；（像）爬虫的；卑躬屈节的；卑鄙的n.两栖动物；卑劣的人 | |
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hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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gravel
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| n.砂跞；砂砾层；结石 | |
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habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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appendages
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| n.附属物( appendage的名词复数 )；依附的人；附属器官；附属肢体（如臂、腿、尾等） | |
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aquarium
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| n.水族馆，养鱼池，玻璃缸 | |
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prehensile
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| adj.（足等）适于抓握的 | |
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cylindrical
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| adj.圆筒形的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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sluggish
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| adj.懒惰的，迟钝的，无精打采的 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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beetle
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| n.甲虫，近视眼的人 | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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concealment
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| n.隐藏, 掩盖，隐瞒 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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grassy
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| adj.盖满草的；长满草的 | |
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velvety
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| adj. 像天鹅绒的, 轻软光滑的, 柔软的 | |
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moss
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| n.苔，藓，地衣 | |
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marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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glossy
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| adj.平滑的；有光泽的 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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volcanic
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| adj.火山的；象火山的；由火山引起的 | |
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beetles
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| n.甲虫( beetle的名词复数 ) | |
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naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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loam
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| n.沃土 | |
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caterpillars
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| n.毛虫( caterpillar的名词复数 )；履带 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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moths
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| n.蛾( moth的名词复数 ) | |
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moth
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| n.蛾，蛀虫 | |
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hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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eminently
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| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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oblique
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| adj.斜的，倾斜的，无诚意的，不坦率的 | |
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obliquely
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| adv.斜； 倾斜； 间接； 不光明正大 | |
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furrowed
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| v.犁田，开沟( furrow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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apex
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| n.顶点，最高点 | |
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lateral
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| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
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veins
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| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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mildewed
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| adj.发了霉的，陈腐的，长了霉花的v.（使）发霉，（使）长霉( mildew的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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fungi
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| n.真菌，霉菌 | |
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deceptive
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| adj.骗人的，造成假象的，靠不住的 | |
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garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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vouch
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| v.担保；断定；n.被担保者 | |
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dart
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| v.猛冲，投掷；n.飞镖，猛冲 | |
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reposing
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的现在分词 ) | |
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twig
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| n.小树枝，嫩枝；v.理解 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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lichens
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| n.地衣( lichen的名词复数 ) | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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mortar
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| n.灰浆，灰泥；迫击炮；v.把…用灰浆涂接合 | |
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twigs
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| 细枝，嫩枝( twig的名词复数 ) | |
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grasshoppers
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| n.蚱蜢( grasshopper的名词复数 )；蝗虫；蚂蚱；（孩子）矮小的 | |
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locusts
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| n.蝗虫( locust的名词复数 )；贪吃的人；破坏者；槐树 | |
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dilated
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| adj.加宽的，扩大的v.（使某物）扩大，膨胀，张大( dilate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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deception
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| n.欺骗，欺诈；骗局，诡计 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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inorganic
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| adj.无生物的；无机的 | |
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talisman
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| n.避邪物，护身符 | |
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103
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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