But it is needless to say that Neckam merely dealt with a theme, which had been familiar many centuries before his time, and compiled his treatise, “De Utensilibus,” as Bishop6 Alfric had his earlier “Colloquy,” with an educational, not a culinary, object, and with a view to facilitate the knowledge of Latin among his scholars. It is rather interesting to know that he was a native of St. Albans, where he was born in 1157. He died in 1217, so that the composition of this work of his (one of many) may be referred to the close of the twelfth century. Its value is, in a certain sense, impaired7 by the almost complete absence of English terms; Latin and (so called) Norman-French being the languages almost exclusively employed in it. But we have good reason indeed to be grateful for such a legacy8 in any shape, and when we consider the tendency of ways of life to pass unchanged from one generation to another, and when we think how many archaic9 and (to our apprehension) almost barbarous fashions and forms in domestic management lingered within living recollection, it will not be hazarding much after all to presume that the particulars so casually10 supplied to us by Neckam have an application alike before and after.
A student should also bear in mind that, from the strong Anglo-Gallic complexion11 of our society and manners in early days, the accounts collected by Lacroix are largely applicable to this country, and the same facilities for administering to the comfort and luxuries of the table, which he furnishes as illustrative of the gradual outgrowth from the wood fire and the pot-au-feu among his own countrymen, or certain classes of them, may be received as something like counterparts of what we possessed12 in England at or about the same period. We keep the phrase pot luck; but, for most of those who use it, it has parted with all its meaning. This said production of Neckam of St. Albans purports13 to be a guide to young housekeepers14. It instructs them what they will require, if they desire to see their establishment well-ordered; but we soon perceive that the author has in view the arrangements indispensable for a family of high rank and pretensions16; and it may be once for all observed that this kind of literature seldom proves of much service to us in an investigation17 of the state of the poor, until we come to the fifteenth or even sixteenth century, when the artists of Germany and the Low Countries began to delineate those scenes in industrial and servile life, which time and change have rendered so valuable.
Where their superiors in rank regarded them as little more than mechanical instruments for carrying on the business of life, the poor have left behind them few records of their mode of sustenance18 and of the food which enabled them to follow their daily toil19. The anecdotes20, whatever they may be worth, of Alfred and the burnt cakes, and of Tom Thumb’s mamma and her Christmas pudding, made in a bowl, of which the principal material was pork, stand almost alone; for we get, wherever we look, nothing but descriptions by learned and educated men of their equals or betters, how they fed and what they ate — their houses, their furniture, their weapons, and their dress. Even in the passage of the old fabliau of the “King and the Hermit” the latter, instead of admitting us to a cottage interior, has a servant to wait on him, brings out a tablecloth22, lights two candles, and lays before his disguised guest venison and wine. In most of our own romances, and in the epics23 of antiquity24, we have to be satisfied with vague and splendid generalisations. We do not learn much of the dishes which were on the tables, how they were cooked, and how [Greek: oi polloi] cooked theirs.
The Liber, or rather Codex, Princeps in the very long and extensive catalogue of works on English Cookery, is a vellum roll called the Form of Cury, and is supposed to have been written about the beginning of the fifteenth century by the master-cook of Richard II who reigned25 from 1377 to 1399, and spent the public money in eating and drinking, instead of wasting it, as his grandfather had done, in foreign wars. This singular relic27 was once in the Harleian collection, but did not pass with the rest of the Mss. to the British Museum; it is now however, Additional Ms. 5016, having been presented to the Library by Mr. Gustavus Brander. It was edited by Dr. Pegge in 1780, and included by Warner in his “Antiquitates Culinariae,” 1791. The Roll comprises 196 receipts, and commences with a sort of preamble28 and a Table of Contents. In the former it is worth noting that the enterprise was undertaken “by the assent29 and avisement of masters of physic and of philosophy, that dwelled in his (Richard II.‘s) court,” which illustrates30 the ancient alliance between medicine and cookery, which has not till lately been dissolved. The directions were to enable a man “to make common pottages and common meats for the household, as they should be made, craftily31 and wholesomely;” so that this body of cookery was not prepared exclusively for the use of the royal kitchen, but for those who had not the taste or wish for what are termed, in contra-distinction, in the next sentence, “curious pottages, and meats, and subtleties33.” It is to be conjectured34 that copies of such a Ms. were multiplied, and from time to time reproduced with suitable changes; but with the exception of two different, though nearly coeval35, collections, embracing 31 and 162 receipts or nyms, and also successively printed by Pegge and Warner, there is no apparent trace of any systematic36 compilation37 of this nature at so remote a date.
The “Form of Cury” was in the 28 Eliz., in the possession of the Stafford family, and was in that year presented to the Queen by Edward, Lord Stafford, as is to be gathered from a Latin memorandum38 at the end, in his lordship’s hand, preserved by Pegge and Warner in their editions. The fellowship between the arts of healing and cooking is brought to our recollection by a leonine verse at the end of one of the shorter separate collections above described:—
“Explicit de Coquina
Quae est optima Medicina.”
The “Form of Cury” will amply remunerate a study. It presents the earliest mention, so far as I can discern, of olive oil, cloves39, mace40, and gourds41. In the receipts for making Aigredouce and Bardolf, sugar, that indispensable feature in the cuisine42, makes its appearance; but it does so, I should add, in such a way as to lead to the belief that the use of sugar was at this time becoming more general. The difficulty, at first, seems to have been in refining it. We encounter here, too, onions under the name borrowed from the French instead of the Anglo-Saxon form “ynne leac”; and the prescriptions43 for making messes of almonds, pork, peas, and beans are numerous. There is “Saracen sauce,” moreover, possibly as old as the Crusades, and pig with sage21 stuffing (from which it was but one step to duck). More than one species of “galantine” was already known; and I observe the distinction, in one of the smaller collections printed by Warner, between the tartlet45 formed of meat and the tartlet de fritures, of which the latter approaches more nearly our notion. The imperfect comprehension of harmonies, which is illustrated47 by the prehistoric48 bag-pudding of King Arthur, still continued in the unnatural49 union of flesh with sweets. It is now confined to the cottage, whence Arthur may have himself introduced it at Court and to the Knights50 of the Round Table.
In this authority, several of the dishes were to be cooked in white grease, which Warner interprets into lard; others demanded olive oil; but there is no allusion51 to butter. Among the receipts are some for dishes “in gravy52”; rabbits and chickens were to be treated similarly; and the gravy appears to have consisted merely of the broth53 in which they were boiled, and which was flavoured with pounded almonds, powdered ginger54, and sugar.
The “Liber Cure Cocorum,” which is apparently55 extant only in a fifteenth century Ms., is a metrical treatise, instructing its readers how to prepare certain dishes, condiments56 and accessories; and presents, for the most part, a repetition of what has already occurred in earlier and more comprehensive undertakings57. It is a curious aid to our knowledge of the manner in which the table of the well-to-do Englishman was furnished in the time of Henry VI., and it is so far special, that it deals with the subject more from a middle-class point of view than the “Regulations for the Royal Household,” and other similar compilations58, which I have to bring under notice. The names, as usual, are often misleading, as in blanc manger, which is very different from our blanc-mange; and the receipt for “goose in a hog59 pot” leaves one in doubt as to its adaptability60 to the modern palate. The poetical61 ambition of the author has proved a source of embarrassment62 here and there; and in the receipt “for a service on a fish-day” the practitioner63 is prayed within four lines to cover his white herring for God’s sake, and lay mustard over his red for God’s love, because sake and love rhyme with take and above.
The next collection of receipts, which exists in a complete and homogeneous shape, is the “Noble Book of Cookery,” of which an early Ms. copy at Holkham was edited in 1882 by Mrs. Napier, but which had already been printed by Pynson in 1500, and subsequently by his successor, John Byddell. This interesting and important volume commences with a series of descriptions of certain royal and noble entertainments given on various occasions from the time of Henry IV. to that of Edward IV., and then proceeds to furnish a series of directions for the cook of a king’s or prince’s household; for, although both at the outset and the conclusion we are told that these dishes were calculated for all estates, it is abundantly obvious that they were such as never then, or very long subsequently, reached much lower than the court or the aristocracy. There is a less complete copy here of the feast at the enthronement of Archbishop Nevile. I regret that neither of the old printed copies is at present accessible. That of 1500 was formerly64 in the library at Bulstrode, and I was given by the late Mr. Bradshaw to understand that the same copy (no other being known) is probably at Longleat. By referring to Herbert’s “Typographical Antiquities,” anyone may see that, if his account (so far as it goes) is to be trusted, the printed copy varies from the Holkham Ms. in many verbal particulars, and gives the date of Nevile’s Feast as 1465.
The compilation usually known as the “Book of St. Albans,” 1486, is, perhaps, next to the “Noble Book of Cookery,” the oldest receptacle for information on the subject in hand. The former, however, deals with cookery only in an incidental and special way. Like Arnold’s Chronicle, the St. Albans volume is a miscellany comprehending nearly all the matters that were apt to interest the few educated persons who were qualified65 to peruse66 its pages; and amid a variety of allied67 topics we come here across a catalogue of terms used in speaking of certain dishes of that day. The reference is to the prevailing68 methods of dressing69 and carving70. A deer was said to be broken, a cony unlaced, a pheasant, partridge, or quail71 winged, a pigeon or a woodcock thighed72, a plover73 minced74, a mallard unbraced. They spoke75 of a salmon76 or a gurnard as chined, a sole as loined, a haddock as sided, an eel77 as trousoned, a pike as splatted, and a trout78 as gobbeted.
It must, I think, be predicated of Tusser’s “Husbandry,” of which the last edition published in the writer’s lifetime is that of 1580, that it seems rather to reproduce precepts79 which occur elsewhere than to supply the reader with the fruits of his own direct observation. But there are certain points in it which are curious and original. He tells the ploughman that, after confession80 on Shrove Tuesday, he may go and thresh the fat hen, and if he is blindfold81, kill her, and then dine on fritters and pancakes. At other times, seed-cakes, wafers, and other light confections.
It appears to have been usual for the farmer at that date to allow his hinds82 roast meat twice a week, on Sundays and on Thursday nights; but perhaps this was a generous extreme, as Tusser is unusually liberal in his ideas.
Tobias Venner, a Somersetshire man, brought out in 1620 his “Via Recta ad Vitam Longam.” He was evidently a very intelligent person, and affords us the result of his professional experience and personal observation. He considered two meals a day sufficient for all ordinary people — breakfast at eleven and supper at six (as at the universities); but he thought that children and the aged83 or infirm could not be tied by any rule. He condemns84 “bull’s beef” as rank, unpleasant, and indigestible, and holds it best for the labourer; which seems to indicate more than anything else the low state of knowledge in the grazier, when Venner wrote: but there is something beyond friendly counsel where our author dissuades85 the poor from eating partridges, because they are calculated to promote asthma86. “Wherefore,” he ingenuously87 says, “when they shall chance to meet with a covey of young partridges, they were much better to bestow88 them upon such, for whom they are convenient!”
Salmon, turbot, and sturgeon he also reckoned hard of digestion89, and injurious, if taken to excess; nor does he approve of herrings and sprats; and anchovies90 he characterises as the meat of drunkards. It is the first that we have heard of them.
He was not a bad judge of what was palatable91, and prescribes as an agreeable and wholesome32 meal a couple of poached eggs with a little salt and vinegar, and a few corns of pepper, some bread and butter, and a draught92 of pure claret. He gives a receipt — the earliest I have seen in print — for making metheglin or hydromel. He does not object to furmety or junket, or indeed to custards, if they are eaten at the proper seasons, and in the middle or at the end of meals. But he dislikes mushrooms, and advises you to wash out your mouth, and rub your teeth and gums with a dry cloth, after drinking milk.
The potato, however, he praises as nutritious93 and pleasant to the taste, yet, as Gerarde the herbalist also says, flatulent. Venner refers to a mode of sopping94 them in wine as existing in his time. They were sometimes roasted in the embers, and there were other ways of dressing them. John Forster, of Hanlop, in Bucks95, wrote a pamphlet in 1664 to shew that the more extended cultivation96 of this root would be a great national benefit.
Venner, who practised in the spring and autumn at Bath as a physician, had no relish97 for the poorer classes, who did not fare well at the hands of their superiors in any sense in the excellent old days. But he liked the Quality, in which he embraced the Universities, and he tenders them, among other little hints, the information that green ginger was good for the memory, and conserve98 of roses (not the salad of roses immortalised by Apuleius) was a capital posset against bed-time. “A conserve of rosemary and sage,” says he, “to be often used by students, especially mornings fasting, doth greatly delight the brain.”
The military ascendency of Spain did not fail to influence the culinary civilisation99 of those countries to which it temporarily extended its rule; and in a Venetian work entitled “Epulario, or the Italian Banquet,” printed in 1549, we recognise the Spanish tone which had in the sixteenth century communicated itself to the cookery of the Peninsula, shewing that Charles V. and his son carried at least one art with them as an indemnity100 for the havoc101 which they committed.
The nursery rhyme of “Sing a song of sixpence” receives a singular and diverting illustration from the pages of this “Epulario,” where occurs a receipt “to make Pies that the Birds may be alive in them, and fly out when it is cut up.” Some of the other more salient beads102 relate to the mode of dressing sundry103 dishes in the Roman and Catalonian fashion, and teach us how to seethe104 gourds, as they did in Spain, and to make mustard after the manner of Padua.
I propose here to register certain contributions to our acquaintance with early culinary ideas and practices, which I have not specifically described:—
1. The Book of Carving. W. de Worde. 4to, 1508, 1513. Reprinted down to 1613.
2. A Proper New Book of Cookery. 12mo, 1546. Often reprinted. It is a recension of the “Book of Cookery,” 1500.
3. The Treasury106 of Commodious107 Conceits108 and Hidden Secrets. By John Partridge. 12mo, 1580, 1586; and under the title of “Treasury of Hidden Secrets,” 4to, 1596, 1600, 1637, 1653.
4. A Book of Cookery. Gathered by A.W. 12mo, 1584, 1591, etc.
5. The Good Housewife’s Jewel. By Thomas Dawson. In two Parts, 12mo, 1585. A copy of Part 2 of this date is in the British Museum.
6. The Good Housewife’s Treasury. 12 mo, 1588.
7. Cookery for all manner of Dutch Victual. Licensed109 in 1590, but not otherwise known.
8. The Good Housewife’s Handmaid for the Kitchen. 8vo, 1594.
9. The Ladies’ Practice; or, a plain and easy direction for ladies and gentlewomen. By John Murrell. Licensed in 1617. Printed in 1621, and with additions in 1638, 1641, and 1650.
10. A Book of Cookery. By George Crewe. Licensed in 1623, but not known.
11. A Closet for Ladies and Gentlewomen. 12mo, 1630.
12. The Ladies’ Cabinet Opened. By Patrick, Lord Ruthven. 4to, 1639; 8vo, 1655.
13. A Curious Treasury of Twenty Rare Secrets. Published by La Fountaine, an expert Operator. 4to, 1649.
14. A New Dispensatory of Fourty Physical Receipts. Published by Salvatore Winter of Naples, an expert Operator. 4to, 1649. Second edition, enlarged: same date.
The three last are rather in the class of miscellanies.
15. Health’s Improvement; or, Rules comprising the discovering the Nature, Method, and Manner of preparing all sorts of Food used in this Nation. By Thomas Muffet (or Moffat), M.D. Corrected and enlarged by Christopher Bennett, M.D. 4to, 1655.
16. The Queen’s Closet opened. Incomparable secrets in physick, chirurgery, Preserving, Candying, and Cookery. . . . Transcribed110 from the true copies of her Majesties111 own Receipt Books. By W.M., one of her late Servants. . . . London, 1655, 8vo. The same, corrected and revised, with many new and large Additions. 8vo, 1683.
17. The Perfect Cook: being the most exact directions for the making all kinds of pastes, with the perfect way teaching how to raise, season, and make all sorts of pies. . . . As also the Perfect English Cook. . . . To which is added the way of dressing all manner of Flesh. By M. Marmette. London, 1686, 12mo.
The writer of the “French Gardener,” of which I have had occasion to say a good deal in my small volume on that subject, also produced, “Les Délices de la Campagne,” which Evelyn excused himself from translating because, whatever experience he had in the garden, he had none, he says, in the shambles112; and it was for those who affected113 such matters to get it done, but not by him who did the “French Cook”1. He seems to imply that the latter, though an excellent work in its way, had not only been marred114 in the translation, but was not so practically advantageous115 to us as it might have been, “for want of skill in the kitchen”— in other words, an evil, which still prevails, was then appreciated by intelligent observers — the English cook did not understand her business, and the English mistress, as a rule, was equally ignorant.
1 I have not seen this book, nor is it under that title in the catalogue of the British Museum.
One of the engravings in the “French Gardener” represents women rolling out paste, preparing vegetables, and boiling conserves116.
There is a rather quaint105 and attractive class of miscellaneous receipt-books, not made so on account of any particular merit in their contents, but by reason of their association with some person of quality. Ms. Sloane 1367, is a narrow octavo volume, for instance, containing “My Lady Rennelagh’s choice Receipts: as also some of Capt. Gvilt’s, who valued them above gold.” The value for us, however, is solely118 in the link with a noble family and the little touch about the Captain. There are many more such in public and private libraries, and they are often mere5 transcripts119 from printed works — select assemblages of directions for dressing food and curing diseases, formed for domestic reference before the advent120 of Dr. Buchan, and Mrs. Glasse, and Mrs. Rundell.
Among a valuable and extensive assemblage of English and foreign cookery books in the Patent Office Library, Mr. Ordish has obligingly pointed121 out to me a curious 4to Ms., on the cover of which occurs, “Mrs. Mary Dacres her booke, 1666.”
Even in the latter part of the seventeenth century the old-fashioned dishes, better suited to the country than to the Court taste, remained in fashion, and are included in receipt-books, even in that published by Joseph Cooper, who had been head-cook to Charles I, and who styles his 1654 volume “The Art of Cookery Refined and Augmented122.” He gives us two varieties of oatmeal pudding, French barley123 pudding, and hasty pudding in a bag. There is a direction for frying mushrooms, which were growing more into favour at the table than in the days when Castelvetri, whom I cite in my monograph124 on Gardening, was among us. Another dainty is an ox-palate pie.
Cooper’s Preface is quaint, and surely modest enough. “Though the cheats,” says he, “of some preceding pieces that treated on this subject (whose Title-pages, like the contents of a weekly Pamphlet, promised much more than the Books performed) may have provided this but a cold intertainment at its first coming abroad; yet I know it will not stay long in the world, before every rational reader will clear it of all alliance to those false pretenders. Ladies, forgive my confidence, if I tell you, that I know this piece will prove your favourite.”
Yet Cooper’s performance, in spite of its droll125, self-complacent vein126 in the address to the Reader, is a judicious127 and useful selection, and was, in fact, far more serviceable to the middle-class gentry128 than some of those which had gone before. It adapted itself to sundry conditions of men; but it kept in view those whose purses were not richly lined enough to pay for dainties and “subtleties.” It is pleasant to see that, after the countless129 centuries which had run out since Arthur, the bag-pudding and hot-pot maintained their ground — good, wholesome, country fare.
After the fall of the Monarchy130 in 1648, the chef de cuisine probably found his occupation gone, like a greater man before him; and the world may owe to enforced repose131 this condescension132 to the pen by the deposed133 minister of a king.
Soon after the Restoration it was that some Royalist brought out a small volume called “The Court and Kitchen of Elizabeth, commonly called Joan Cromwell, the wife of the late Usurper134, truly described and represented,” 12mo, 1664. Its design was to throw ridicule135 on the parsimony136 of the Protectoral household. But he recites some excellent dishes which made their appearance at Oliver’s table: Dutch puddings, Scotch137 collops of veal138, marrow139 puddings, sack posset, boiled woodcocks, and warden140 pies. He seems to have understood that eight stone of beef were cooked every morning for the establishment, and all scraps141 were diligently143 collected, and given alternately to the poor of St. Margaret’s, Westminster, and St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields. The writer acquaints us that, when the Protector entertained the French ambassador and the Parliament, after the Sindercome affair, he only spent ￡1,000 over the banquet, of which the Lady Protectress managed to save ￡200. Cromwell and his wife, we are told, did not care for suppers, but contented144 themselves with eggs and slops.
A story is told here of Cromwell and his wife sitting down to a loin of veal, and his calling for an orange, which was the sauce he preferred to that joint145, and her highness telling him that he could not have one, for they were not to be had under a groat.
The Mansion146 House still retains the ancient usage of distributing the relics147 of a great feast afterwards among the poor, as Cromwell is said just above to have made a rule of his household. It was a practice highly essential in the absence of any organised system of relief.
The reign26 of Charles II., which witnessed a relationship with France of a very different character from that which the English maintained during the Plantagenet and earlier Tudor rule, was favourable148 to the naturalisation of the Parisian school of cookery, and numerous works were published at and about that time, in which the development of knowledge in this direction is shown to have taken place pari passu with the advance in gardening and arboriculture under the auspices149 of Evelyn.
In 1683 we come to a little volume entitled “The Young Cook’s Monitor,” by M.H., who made it public for the benefit of his (or her) scholars; a really valuable and comprehensive manual, wherein, without any attempt at arrangement, there is an ample assemblage of directions for preparing for the table all kinds of joints150, made dishes, soups and broths151, frigacies, puddings, pies, tarts152, tansies, and jellies. Receipts for pickling are included, and two ways are shown how we should treat turnips153 after this wise. Some of the ingredients proposed for sauces seem to our ears rather prodigious154. In one place a contemporary peruser155 has inserted an ironical156 calculation in Ms. to the effect that, whereas a cod’s head could be bought for fourpence, the condiments recommended for it were not to be had for less than nine shillings. The book teaches us to make Scotch collops, to pickle157 lemons and quinces, to make French bread, to collar beef, pork, or eels158, to make gooseberry fool, to dry beef after the Dutch fashion, to make sack posset two ways, to candy flowers (violets, roses, etc.) for salads, to pickle walnuts159 like mangoes, to make flummery, to make a carp pie, to pickle French beans and cucumbers, to make damson and quince wines, to make a French pudding (called a Pomeroy pudding), to make a leg of pork like a Westphalia ham, to make mutton as beef, and to pot beef to eat like venison.
These and many other precepts has M.H. left behind him; and a sort of companion volume, printed a little before, goes mainly over the same ground, to wit, “Rare and Excellent Receipts Experienced and Taught by Mrs. Mary Tillinghast, and now printed for the use of her scholars only,” 1678. The lady appealed to a limited constituency, like M.H.; but her pages, such as they are (for there are but thirty), are now publici juris. The lesson to be drawn160 from Mistress Tillinghast’s printed labours is that, among our ancestors in 1678, pies and pasties of all sorts, and sweet pastry161, were in increased vogue162. Her slender volume is filled with elucidations on the proper manufacture of paste of various sorts; and in addition to the pies designated by M.H. we encounter a Lombard pie, a Battalia pie, an artichoke pie, a potato (or secret) pie, a chadron [Footnote: A pie chiefly composed of a calf163’s chadroa] pie, and a herring pie. The fair author takes care to instruct us as to the sauces or dressings164 which are to accompany certain of her dishes.
“The Book of Cookery,” 1500, of which there was a reprint by John Byddell about 1530 was often republished, with certain modifications165, down to 1650, under the titles of “A Proper New Book of Cookery,” or “The Book of Cookery.” Notwithstanding the presence of many competitors, it continued to be a public favourite, and perhaps answered the wants of those who did not desire to see on their tables the foreign novelties introduced by travellers, or advertised in collections of receipts borrowed from other languages.
In fact, the first half of the seventeenth century did not witness many accessions to the store of literature on this subject. But from the time of the Commonwealth167, the supply of works of reference for the housekeeper15 and the cook became much more regular and extensive. In 1653, Selden’s friend, the Countess of Kent, brought out her “Choice Manual of Physic and Chirurgery,” annexing168 to it receipts for preserving and candying; and there were a few others, about the same time, of whose works I shall add here a short list:—
1. The Accomplished169 Cook. By Robert May. 8vo, 1660. Fifth edition, 8vo, 1685.
2. The Whole Body of Cookery Dissected170. By Will. Rabisha. 8vo, 1661.
3. The Queen-like Closet: a Rich Cabinet, stored with all manner of rare receipts. By Hannah Wolley. 8vo, 1670.
4. The True Way of Preserving and Candying, and making several sorts of Sweetmeats. Anon. 8vo, 1681.
5. The Complete Servant-Maid. 12 mo, 1682-3.
6. A Choice Collection of select Remedies. . . . Together with excellent Directions for Cooking, and also for Preserving and Conserving171. By G. Hartman [a Chemist]. 8vo, 1684.
7. A Treatise of Cleanness in Meats and Drinks, of the Preparation of Food, etc. By Thomas Tryon. 4to, 1682.
8. The Genteel Housekeeper’s Pastime; or, The mode of Carving at the Table represented in a Pack of Playing Cards. 8vo, 1693.
9. A New Art of Brewing172 Beer, Ale, and other sorts of Liquors. By T. Tryon. 12mo, 1690-91.
10. The Way to get Wealth; or, A New and Ready Way to make twenty-three sorts of Wines, equal to that of France . . . also to make Cyder. . . . By the same. 12mo, 1702.
11. A Treatise of Foods in General. By Louis Lemery. Translated into English. 8vo, 1704.
12. England’s Newest Way in all sorts of Cookery. By Henry Howard, Free Cook of London. Second edition, 8vo, 1708.
13. Royal Cookery; or, the Complete Court-Cook. By Patrick Lamb, Esq., near 50 years Master-Cook to their late Majesties King Charles II., King James II., King William, Mary, and to her present Majesty174, Queen Anne. 8vo, 1710. Third edition, 8vo, 1726.
14. The Queen’s Royal Cookery. By J. Hall, Free Cook of London. 12mo, 1713-15.
15. Mrs. Mary Eales’ Receipts, Confectioner to her late Majesty, Queen Anne. 8vo, 1718.
16. A Collection of three hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physic, and Surgery. In two parts, 8vo, 1729.
17. The Complete City and Country Cook. By Charles Carter. 8vo, 1732.
18. The Complete Housewife. Seventh edition, 8vo, 1736.
19. The Complete Family Piece: A very choice Collection of Receipts. Second edition, 8vo, 1737.
20. The Modern Cook. By Vincent La Chapelle, Cook to the Prince of Orange. Third edition. 8vo, 1744.
21. A Treatise of all sorts of Foods. By L. Lemery. Translated by D. Hay, M.D. 8vo, 1745.
This completes the list of books, so far as they have fallen in my way, or been pointed out by the kindness of friends, down to the middle of the last century.
It was probably Charles, Duke of Bolton (1698-1722), who was at one time Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, and who in the beginning of his ducal career, at all events, resided in St. James’s Street, that possessed successively as head-cooks John Nott and John Middleton. To each of these artists we owe a volume of considerable pretensions, and the “Cook’s and Confectioner’s Dictionary,” 1723, by the former, is positively175 a very entertaining and cyclopedic publication. Nott inscribes176 his book “To all Good Housewives,” and declares that he placed an Introduction before it merely because fashion had made it as strange for a book to appear without one as for a man to be seen in church without a neckcloth or a lady without a hoop-petticoat. He congratulates himself and his readers on living in a land flowing with milk and honey, quotes the saw about God sending meat and somebody else sending cooks, and accounts for his omission177 of pigments178 by saying, like a gallant179 man, that his countrywomen little needed such things. Nott opens with Some Divertisements in Cookery, us’d at Festival-Times, as Twelfth-Day, etc., which are highly curious, and his dictionary itself presents the novelty of being arranged, lexicon-wise, alphabetically180. He seems to have been a fairly-read and intelligent man, and cites, in the course of his work, many celebrated181 names and receipts. Thus we have:— To brew173 ale Sir Jonas Moore’s way; to make Dr. Butler’s purging182 ale; ale of health and strength, by the Viscount St. Albans; almond butter the Cambridge way; to dress a leg of mutton à la Dauphine; to dress mutton the Turkish way; to stew183 a pike the City way. Dr. Twin’s, Dr. Blacksmith’s, and Dr. Atkin’s almond butter; an amber184 pudding, according to the Lord Conway’s receipt; the Countess of Rutland’s Banbury cake; to make Oxford185 cake; to make Portugal cakes; and so on. Nott embraces every branch of his subject, and furnishes us with bills of fare for every month of the year, terms and rules of carving, and the manner of setting out a dessert of fruits and sweetmeats. There is a singular process explained for making China broth, into which an ounce of china is to enter. Many new ways had been gradually found of utilising the materials for food, and vegetables were growing more plentiful186. The carrot was used in soups, puddings, and tarts. Asparagus and spinach187, which are wanting in all the earlier authorities, were common, and the barberry had come into favour. We now begin to notice more frequent mention of marmalades, blanc-manges, creams, biscuits, and sweet cakes. There is a receipt for a carraway cake, for a cabbage pudding, and for a chocolate tart46.
The production by his Grace of Bolton’s other chef, John Middleton, is “Five Hundred New Receipts in Cookery, Confectionary, Pastry, Preserving, Conserving, Pickling,” and the date is 1734. Middleton doubtless borrowed a good deal from his predecessor188; but he also appears to have made some improvements in the science. We have here the methods, to dress pikes à la sauce Robert, to make blackcaps (apples baked in their skins); to make a Wood Street cake; to make Shrewsbury cakes; to dress a leg of mutton like a gammon of bacon; to dress eggs à la Augemotte; to make a dish of quaking pudding of several colours; to make an Italian pudding, and to make an Olio. The eye seems to meet for the first time with hasty pudding, plum-porridge (an experiment toward the solidification189 of the older plum-broth), rolled beef-steaks, samphire, hedgehog cream (so called from its shape, currants being used for the eyes, and cut almonds for the bristles), cocks’-combs, orange, spinach and bean tarts, custards in cups (the 1723 book talks of jellies served on china plates), and lastly, jam — the real jam of these days, made to last, as we are told, the whole year. There is an excellent prescription44 for making elderberry wine, besides, in which Malaga raisins190 are to be largely used. “In one year,” says our chef, “it will be as good and as pleasant as French wine.”
Let us extract the way “to make Black-caps”:—“Take a dozen of good pippins, cut them in halves, and take out the cores; then place them on a right Mazarine dish with the skins on, the cut side downwards191; put to them a very little water, scrape on them some loaf sugar, put them in a hot oven till the skins are burnt black, and your apples tender; serve them on Plates strew’d over with sugar.”
Of these books, I select the preface to “The Complete Housewife,” by E. Smith, 1736, because it appears to be a somewhat more ambitious endeavour in an introductory way than the authors of such undertakings usually hazard. From the last paragraph we collect that the writer was a woman, and throughout she makes us aware that she was a person of long practical experience. Indeed, as the volume comprehends a variety of topics, including medicines, Mrs. or Miss Smith must have been unusually observant, and have had remarkable192 opportunities of making herself conversant193 with matters beyond the ordinary range of culinary specialists. I propose presently to print a few samples of her workmanship, and a list of her principal receipts in that section of the book with which I am just now concerned. First of all, here is the Preface, which begins, as we see, by a little piece of plagiarism194 from Nott’s exordium:—
“Preface.
“It being grown as unfashionable for a book now to appear in publick without a preface, as for a lady to appear at a ball without a hoop-petticoat, I shall conform to custom for fashion-sake, and not through any necessity. The subject being both common and universal, needs no arguments to introduce it, and being so necessary for the gratification of the appetite, stands in need of no encomiums to allure195 persons to the practice of it; since there are but few now-a-days who love not good eating and drinking. Therefore I entirely196 quit those two topicks; but having three or four pages to be filled up previous to the subject it self, I shall employ them on a subject I think new, and not yet handled by any of the pretenders to the art of cookery; and that is, the antiquity of it; which if it either instruct or divert, I shall be satisfied, if you are so.
“Cookrey, confectionary, &c., like all other sciences and arts, had their infancy197, and did not arrive at a state of maturity198 but by slow degrees, various experiments, and a long tract117 of time: for in the infant-age of the world, when the new inhabitants contented themselves with the simple provision of nature, viz. the vegetable diet, the fruits and production of the teeming199 ground, as they succeeded one another in their several peculiar200 seasons, the art of cookery was unknown; apples, nuts, and herbs, were both meat and sauce, and mankind stood in no need of any additional sauces, ragoes, &c., but a good appetite; which a healthful and vigorous constitution, a clear, wholesome, odoriferous air, moderate exercise, and an exemption201 from anxious cares, always supplied them with.
“We read of no palled202 appetites, but such as proceeded from the decays of nature by reason of an advanced old age; but on the contrary a craving203 stomach, even upon a death-bed, as in Isaac: nor no sicknesses but those that were both the first and the last, which proceeded from the struggles of nature, which abhorred204 the dissolution of soul and body; no physicians to prescribe for the sick, nor no apothecaries205 to compound medicines for two thousand years and upwards206. Food and physick were then one and the same thing.
“But when men began to pass from a vegetable to an animal diet, and feed on flesh, fowls207, and fish, then seasonings209 grew necessary, both to render it more palatable and savoury, and also to preserve that part which was not immediately spent from stinking210 and corruption211: and probably salt was the first seasoning208 discover’d; for of salt we read, Gen. xiv.
“And this seems to be necessary, especially for those who were advanced in age, whose palates, with their bodies, had lost their vigour212 as to taste, whose digestive faculty213 grew weak and impotent; and thence proceeded the use of soops and savoury messes; so that cookery then began to become a science, though luxury had not brought it to the height of an art. Thus we read, that Jacob made such palatable pottage, that Esau purchased a mess of it at the extravagant214 price of his birthright. And Isaac, before by his last will and testament215 he bequeathed his blessing216 to his son Esau, required him to make some savoury meat, such as his soul loved, i.e., such as was relishable217 to his blunted palate.
“So that seasonings of some sort were then in use; though whether they were salt, savoury herbs, or roots only; or spices, the fruits of trees, such as pepper, cloves, nutmeg; bark, as cinnamon; roots, as ginger, &c., I shall not determine.
“As for the methods of the cookery of those times, boiling or stewing218 seems to have been the principal; broiling219 or roasting the next; besides which, I presume scarce any other were used for two thousand years and more; for I remember no other in the history of Genesis.
“That Esau was the first cook, I shall not presume to assert; for Abraham gave order to dress a fatted calf; but Esau is the first person mentioned that made any advances beyond plain dressing, as boiling, roasting, &c. For though we find indeed, that Rebecca his mother was accomplished with the skill of making savoury meat as well as he, yet whether he learned it from her, or she from him, is a question too knotty220 for me to determine.
“But cookery did not long remain a simple science, or a bare piece of housewifry or family ceconomy, but in process of time, when luxury entered the world, it grew to an art, nay221 a trade; for in I Sam. viii. 13. when the Israelites grew fashionists, and would have a king, that they might be like the rest of their neighbours, we read of cooks, confectioners, &c.
“This art being of universal use, and in constant practice, has been ever since upon the improvement; and we may, I think, with good reason believe, is arrived at its greatest height and perfection, if it is not got beyond it, even to its declension; for whatsoever222 new, upstart, out-of-the-way messes some humourists have invented, such as stuffing a roasted leg of mutton with pickled herring, and the like, are only the sallies of a capricious appetite, and debauching rather than improving the art itself.
“The art of cookery, &c., is indeed diversified223 according to the diversity of nations or countries; and to treat of it in that latitude224 would fill an unportable volume; and rather confound than improve those that would accomplish themselves with it. I shall therefore confine what I have to communicate within the limits of practicalness and usefulness, and so within the compass of a manual, that shall neither burthen the hands to hold, the eyes in reading, nor the mind in conceiving.
“What you will find in the following sheets, are directions generally for dressing after the best, most natural, and wholesome manner, such provisions as are the product of our own country, and in such a manner as is most agreeable to English palates: saving that I have so far temporized225, as, since we have to our disgrace so fondly admired the French tongue, French modes, and also French messes, to present you now and then with such receipts of French cookery, as I think may not be disagreeable to English palates.
“There are indeed already in the world various books that treat on this subject, and which bear great names, as cooks to kings, princes, and noblemen, and from which one might justly expect something more than many, if not most of these I have read, perform, but found my self deceived in my expectations; for many of them to us are impracticable, others whimsical, others unpalatable, unless to depraved palates; some unwholesome, many things copied from old authors, and recommended without (as I am persuaded) the copiers ever having had any experience of the palatableness, or had any regard to the wholesomness of them; which two things ought to be the standing166 rules, that no pretenders to cookery ought to deviate226 from. And I cannot but believe, that those celebrated performers, notwithstanding all their professions of having ingenuously communicated their art, industriously227 concealed228 their best receipts from the publick.
“But what I here present the world with is the product of my own experience, and that for the space of thirty years and upwards; during which time I have been constantly employed in fashionable and noble families, in which the provisions ordered according to the following directions, have had the general approbation229 of such as have been at many noble entertainments.
“These receipts are all suitable to English constitutions and English palates, wholesome, toothsome, all practicable and easy to be performed. Here are those proper for a frugal230, and also for a sumptuous231 table, and if rightly observed, will prevent the spoiling of many a good dish of meat, the waste of many good materials, the vexation that frequently attends such mismanagements, and the curses not unfrequently bestowed232 on cooks with the usual reflection, that whereas God sends good meat, the devil sends cooks.
“As to those parts that treat of confectionary, pickles233, cordials, English wines, &c., what I have said in relation to cookery is equally applicable to them also.
“It is true, I have not been so numerous in receipts as some who have gone before me, but I think I have made amends234 in giving none but what are approved and practicable, and fit either for a genteel or a noble Table; and altho’ I have omitted odd and fantastical messes, yet I have set down a considerable number of receipts.
“The treatise is divided into ten parts: cookery contains above an hundred receipts, pickles fifty, puddings above fifty, pastry above forty, cakes forty, creams and jellies above forty, preserving an hundred, made wines forty, cordial waters and powders above seventy, medicines and salves above two hundred; in all near eight hundred.
“I have likewise presented you with schemes engraven on copper-plates for the regular disposition235 or placing the dishes of provision on the table according to the best manner, both for summer and winter, first and second courses, &c.
“As for the receipts for medicines, salves, ointments236, good in several diseases, wounds, hurts, bruises237, aches, pains, &c., which amount to above two hundred, they are generally family receipts, that have never been made publick; excellent in their kind, and approved remedies, which have not been obtained by me without much difficulty; and of such efficacy in distempers, &c., to which they are appropriated, that they have cured when all other means have failed; and a few of them which I have communicated to a friend, have procured238 a very handsome livelihood239.
“They are very proper for those generous, charitable, and Christian240 gentlewomen that have a disposition to be serviceable to their poor country neighbours, labouring under any of the afflicted241 circumstances mentioned; who by making the medicines, and generously contributing as occasions offer, may help the poor in their afflictions, gain their good-will and wishes, entitle themselves to their blessings242 and prayers, and also have the pleasure of seeing the good they do in this world, and have good reason to hope for a reward (though not by way of merit) in the world to come.
“As the whole of this collection has cost me much pains and a thirty years’ diligent142 application, and I have had experience of their use and efficacy, I hope they will be as kindly243 accepted, as by me they are generously offered to the publick: and if they prove to the advantage of many, the end will be answered that is proposed by her that is ready to serve the publick in what she may.”
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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impaired
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| adj.受损的；出毛病的；有（身体或智力）缺陷的v.损害，削弱( impair的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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legacy
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| n.遗产，遗赠；先人(或过去)留下的东西 | |
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archaic
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| adj.(语言、词汇等)古代的，已不通用的 | |
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casually
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| adv.漠不关心地，无动于衷地，不负责任地 | |
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complexion
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| n.肤色；情况，局面；气质，性格 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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purports
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| v.声称是…，（装得）像是…的样子( purport的第三人称单数 ) | |
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housekeepers
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| n.（女）管家( housekeeper的名词复数 ) | |
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housekeeper
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| n.管理家务的主妇，女管家 | |
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pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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anecdotes
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sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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tablecloth
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| n.桌布，台布 | |
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epics
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antiquity
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reigned
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reign
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relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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preamble
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| n.前言；序文 | |
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assent
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| v.批准，认可；n.批准，认可 | |
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illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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craftily
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| 狡猾地，狡诈地 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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subtleties
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| 细微( subtlety的名词复数 )； 精细； 巧妙； 细微的差别等 | |
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conjectured
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coeval
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systematic
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compilation
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memorandum
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cloves
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| n.丁香（热带树木的干花，形似小钉子，用作调味品，尤用作甜食的香料）( clove的名词复数 )；蒜瓣(a garlic ~|a ~of garlic) | |
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mace
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| n.狼牙棒，豆蔻干皮 | |
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gourds
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| n.葫芦( gourd的名词复数 ) | |
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cuisine
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prescriptions
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| 药( prescription的名词复数 )； 处方； 开处方； 计划 | |
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prescription
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| n.处方，开药；指示，规定 | |
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tartlet
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| n.小形的果子馅饼 | |
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tart
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| adj.酸的；尖酸的，刻薄的；n.果馅饼；淫妇 | |
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illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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prehistoric
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| adj.（有记载的）历史以前的，史前的，古老的 | |
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unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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gravy
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| n.肉汁；轻易得来的钱，外快 | |
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broth
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| n.原(汁)汤(鱼汤、肉汤、菜汤等) | |
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ginger
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| n.姜，精力，淡赤黄色；adj.淡赤黄色的；vt.使活泼，使有生气 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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condiments
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| n.调味品 | |
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undertakings
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| 企业( undertaking的名词复数 )； 保证； 殡仪业； 任务 | |
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compilations
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hog
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adaptability
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poetical
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| adj.似诗人的；诗一般的；韵文的；富有诗意的 | |
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embarrassment
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| n.尴尬；使人为难的人(事物)；障碍；窘迫 | |
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practitioner
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| n.实践者，从事者；(医生或律师等)开业者 | |
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formerly
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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peruse
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| v.细读，精读 | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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69
dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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70
carving
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| n.雕刻品，雕花 | |
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71
quail
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| n.鹌鹑；vi.畏惧，颤抖 | |
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72
thighed
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| v.（马）嘶( neigh的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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73
plover
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| n.珩，珩科鸟，千鸟 | |
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74
minced
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| v.切碎( mince的过去式和过去分词 )；剁碎；绞碎；用绞肉机绞（食物，尤指肉） | |
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75
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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76
salmon
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| n.鲑，大马哈鱼，橙红色的 | |
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77
eel
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| n.鳗鲡 | |
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78
trout
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| n.鳟鱼；鲑鱼(属) | |
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79
precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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80
confession
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| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
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81
blindfold
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|
| vt.蒙住…的眼睛；adj.盲目的；adv.盲目地；n.蒙眼的绷带[布等]； 障眼物，蒙蔽人的事物 | |
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82
hinds
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| n.（常指动物腿）后面的( hind的名词复数 )；在后的；（通常与can或could连用）唠叨不停；滔滔不绝 | |
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83
aged
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|
| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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84
condemns
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|
| v.（通常因道义上的原因而）谴责( condemn的第三人称单数 )；宣判；宣布…不能使用；迫使…陷于不幸的境地 | |
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85
dissuades
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| 劝（某人）勿做某事，劝阻( dissuade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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86
asthma
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|
| n.气喘病，哮喘病 | |
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87
ingenuously
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|
| adv.率直地，正直地 | |
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88
bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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89
digestion
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|
| n.消化，吸收 | |
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90
anchovies
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|
| n. 鯷鱼，凤尾鱼 | |
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91
palatable
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|
| adj.可口的，美味的；惬意的 | |
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92
draught
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|
| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
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93
nutritious
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|
| adj.有营养的，营养价值高的 | |
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94
sopping
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| adj. 浑身湿透的 动词sop的现在分词形式 | |
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95
bucks
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|
| n.雄鹿( buck的名词复数 )；钱；（英国十九世纪初的）花花公子；（用于某些表达方式）责任v.（马等）猛然弓背跃起( buck的第三人称单数 )；抵制；猛然震荡；马等尥起后蹄跳跃 | |
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96
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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97
relish
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| n.滋味，享受，爱好，调味品；vt.加调味料，享受，品味；vi.有滋味 | |
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98
conserve
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| vt.保存，保护，节约，节省，守恒，不灭 | |
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99
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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100
indemnity
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| n.赔偿，赔款，补偿金 | |
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101
havoc
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| n.大破坏，浩劫，大混乱，大杂乱 | |
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102
beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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103
sundry
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| adj.各式各样的，种种的 | |
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104
seethe
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| vi.拥挤，云集；发怒，激动，骚动 | |
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105
quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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106
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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107
commodious
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| adj.宽敞的；使用方便的 | |
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108
conceits
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| 高傲( conceit的名词复数 )； 自以为； 巧妙的词语； 别出心裁的比喻 | |
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109
licensed
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|
| adj.得到许可的v.许可，颁发执照(license的过去式和过去分词) | |
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110
transcribed
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| （用不同的录音手段）转录( transcribe的过去式和过去分词 )； 改编（乐曲）（以适应他种乐器或声部）； 抄写； 用音标标出（声音） | |
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111
majesties
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| n.雄伟( majesty的名词复数 )；庄严；陛下；王权 | |
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112
shambles
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| n.混乱之处；废墟 | |
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113
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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114
marred
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| adj. 被损毁, 污损的 | |
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115
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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116
conserves
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| n.（含有大块或整块水果的）果酱，蜜饯( conserve的名词复数 )v.保护，保藏，保存( conserve的第三人称单数 ) | |
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117
tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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118
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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119
transcripts
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| n.抄本（ transcript的名词复数 ）；转写本；文字本；副本 | |
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120
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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121
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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122
Augmented
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| adj.增音的 动词augment的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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123
barley
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| n.大麦，大麦粒 | |
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124
monograph
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| n.专题文章，专题著作 | |
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125
droll
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| adj.古怪的，好笑的 | |
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126
vein
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| n.血管，静脉；叶脉，纹理；情绪；vt.使成脉络 | |
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127
judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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128
gentry
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| n.绅士阶级，上层阶级 | |
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129
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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130
monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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131
repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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132
condescension
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| n.自以为高人一等，贬低(别人) | |
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133
deposed
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| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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134
usurper
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| n. 篡夺者, 僭取者 | |
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135
ridicule
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| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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136
parsimony
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| n.过度节俭，吝啬 | |
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137
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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138
veal
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| n.小牛肉 | |
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139
marrow
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| n.骨髓；精华；活力 | |
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140
warden
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| n.监察员，监狱长，看守人，监护人 | |
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141
scraps
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| 油渣 | |
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142
diligent
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|
| adj.勤勉的，勤奋的 | |
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143
diligently
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| ad.industriously;carefully | |
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144
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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145
joint
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|
| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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146
mansion
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| n.大厦，大楼；宅第 | |
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147
relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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148
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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149
auspices
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| n.资助，赞助 | |
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150
joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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151
broths
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| n.肉汤( broth的名词复数 )；厨师多了烧坏汤；人多手杂反坏事；人多添乱 | |
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152
tarts
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| n.果馅饼( tart的名词复数 )；轻佻的女人；妓女；小妞 | |
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153
turnips
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| 芜青( turnip的名词复数 )； 芜菁块根； 芜菁甘蓝块根； 怀表 | |
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154
prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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155
peruser
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| 精细阅读者 | |
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156
ironical
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| adj.讽刺的，冷嘲的 | |
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157
pickle
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| n.腌汁，泡菜；v.腌，泡 | |
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158
eels
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| abbr. 电子发射器定位系统（=electronic emitter location system） | |
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159
walnuts
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| 胡桃（树）( walnut的名词复数 )； 胡桃木 | |
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160
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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161
pastry
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| n.油酥面团，酥皮糕点 | |
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162
Vogue
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| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
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163
calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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164
dressings
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| n.敷料剂；穿衣( dressing的名词复数 )；穿戴；（拌制色拉的）调料；（保护伤口的）敷料 | |
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165
modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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166
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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167
commonwealth
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| n.共和国，联邦，共同体 | |
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168
annexing
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| 并吞( annex的现在分词 )； 兼并； 强占； 并吞（国家、地区等） | |
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169
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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170
dissected
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| adj.切开的，分割的，（叶子）多裂的v.解剖（动物等）( dissect的过去式和过去分词 )；仔细分析或研究 | |
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171
conserving
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| v.保护，保藏，保存( conserve的现在分词 ) | |
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172
brewing
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| n. 酿造, 一次酿造的量 动词brew的现在分词形式 | |
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173
brew
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| v.酿造，调制 | |
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174
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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175
positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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176
inscribes
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的第三人称单数 ) | |
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177
omission
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| n.省略，删节；遗漏或省略的事物，冗长 | |
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178
pigments
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| n.（粉状）颜料( pigment的名词复数 )；天然色素 | |
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179
gallant
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| adj.英勇的，豪侠的；(向女人)献殷勤的 | |
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180
alphabetically
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| adv.照字母顺序排列地 | |
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181
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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182
purging
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| 清洗； 清除； 净化； 洗炉 | |
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183
stew
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| n.炖汤，焖，烦恼；v.炖汤，焖，忧虑 | |
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184
amber
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| n.琥珀；琥珀色；adj.琥珀制的 | |
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185
Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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186
plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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187
spinach
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| n.菠菜 | |
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188
predecessor
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| n.前辈，前任 | |
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189
solidification
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| 凝固 | |
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190
raisins
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| n.葡萄干( raisin的名词复数 ) | |
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191
downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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192
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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193
conversant
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| adj.亲近的，有交情的，熟悉的 | |
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plagiarism
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| n.剽窃，抄袭 | |
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allure
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| n.诱惑力，魅力；vt.诱惑，引诱，吸引 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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teeming
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| adj.丰富的v.充满( teem的现在分词 )；到处都是；（指水、雨等）暴降；倾注 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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exemption
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| n.豁免，免税额，免除 | |
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palled
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| v.（因过多或过久而）生厌，感到乏味，厌烦( pall的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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craving
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| n.渴望,热望 | |
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abhorred
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| v.憎恶( abhor的过去式和过去分词 )；（厌恶地）回避；拒绝；淘汰 | |
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apothecaries
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| n.药剂师，药店( apothecary的名词复数 ) | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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seasoning
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| n.调味；调味料；增添趣味之物 | |
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seasonings
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| n.调味品，佐料( seasoning的名词复数 ) | |
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stinking
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| adj.臭的，烂醉的，讨厌的v.散发出恶臭( stink的现在分词 )；发臭味；名声臭；糟透 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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relishable
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| 可实现的，可实行的，可了解的 | |
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stewing
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| 炖 | |
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broiling
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| adj.酷热的，炽热的，似烧的v.（用火）烤（焙、炙等）( broil的现在分词 )；使卷入争吵；使混乱；被烤（或炙） | |
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knotty
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| adj.有结的，多节的，多瘤的，棘手的 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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diversified
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| adj.多样化的，多种经营的v.使多样化，多样化( diversify的过去式和过去分词 )；进入新的商业领域 | |
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latitude
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| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
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temporized
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| v.敷衍( temporize的过去式和过去分词 )；拖延；顺应时势；暂时同意 | |
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deviate
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| v.(from)背离，偏离 | |
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industriously
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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frugal
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| adj.节俭的，节约的，少量的，微量的 | |
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sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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pickles
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| n.腌菜( pickle的名词复数 )；处于困境；遇到麻烦；菜酱 | |
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amends
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| n. 赔偿 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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ointments
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| n.软膏( ointment的名词复数 )；扫兴的人；煞风景的事物；药膏 | |
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bruises
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| n.瘀伤，伤痕，擦伤( bruise的名词复数 ) | |
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procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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240
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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241
afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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