“The stomach does not appear to exercise any traction2.”
Now the fact is that the stomach possesses two coats, which certainly exist for some purpose; they extend as far as the mouth, the internal one remaining throughout similar to what it is in the stomach, and the other one tending to become of a more fleshy nature in the gullet. Now simple observation will testify that these coats16 have their fibres inserted in contrary directions. And, although Erasistratus did not attempt to say for what reason they are like this, I am going to do so.
The inner coat has its fibres straight, since it exists for the purpose of traction. The outer coat has its fibres transverse, for the purpose of peristalsis. In fact, the movements of each of the mobile organs of the body depend on the setting of the fibres. Now please test this assertion first in the muscles themselves; in these the fibres are most distinct, and their movements visible owing to their vigour3. And after the muscles, pass to the physical organs, and you will see that they all move in correspondence with their fibres. This is why the fibres throughout the intestines5 are circular in both coats — they only contract peristaltically, they do not exercise traction. The stomach, again, has some of its fibres longitudinal for the purpose of traction and the others transverse for the purpose of peristalsis. For just as the movements in the muscles take place when each of the fibres becomes tightened7 and drawn8 towards its origin, such also is what happens in the stomach; when the transverse fibres tighten6, the breadth of the cavity contained by them becomes less; and when the longitudinal fibres contract and draw in upon themselves, the length must necessarily be curtailed10. This curtailment11 of length, indeed, is well seen in the act of swallowing: the larynx is seen to rise upwards12 to exactly the same degree that the gullet is drawn downwards13; while, after the process of swallowing has been completed and the gullet is released from tension, the larynx can be clearly seen to again. This is because the inner coat of the stomach, which has the longitudinal fibres and which also lines the gullet and the mouth, extends to the interior of the larynx, and it is thus impossible for it to be drawn down by the stomach without the larynx being involved in the traction.
Further, it will be found acknowledged in Erasistratus’s own writings that the circular fibres (by which the stomach as well as other parts performs its contractions) do not curtail9 its length, but contract and lessen15 its breadth. For he says that the stomach contracts peristaltically round the food during the whole period of digestion. But if it contracts, without in any way being diminished in length, this is because downward traction of the gullet is not a property of the movement of circular peristalsis. For what alone happens, as Erasistratus himself said, is that when the upper parts contract the lower ones dilate16. And everyone knows that this can be plainly seen happening even in a dead man, if water be poured down his throat; this symptom results from the passage of matter through a narrow channel; it would be extraordinary if the channel did not dilate when a mass was passing through it. Obviously then the dilatation of the lower parts along with the contraction14 of the upper is common both to dead bodies, when anything whatsoever17 is passing through them, and to living ones, whether they contract peristaltically round their contents or attract them.
Curtailment of length, on the other hand, is peculiar18 to organs which possess longitudinal fibres for the purpose of attraction. But the gullet was shown to be pulled down; for otherwise it would not have drawn upon the larynx. It is therefore clear that the stomach attracts food by the gullet.
Further, in vomiting20, the mere21 passive conveyance22 of rejected matter up to the mouth will certainly itself suffice to keep open those parts of the oesophagus which are distended23 by the returned food; as it occupies each part in front [above], it first dilates24 this, and of course leaves the part behind [below] contracted. Thus, in this respect at least, the condition of the gullet is precisely25 similar to what it is in the act of swallowing. But there being no traction, the whole length remains26 equal in such cases.
And for this reason it is easier to swallow than to vomit19, for deglutition results the coats of the stomach being brought into action, the inner one exerting a pull and the outer one helping27 by peristalsis and propulsion, whereas emesis occurs from the outer coat alone functioning, without there being any kind of pull towards the mouth. For, although the swallowing of food is ordinarily preceded by a feeling of desire on the part of the stomach, there is in the case of vomiting no corresponding desire from the mouth-parts for the experience; the two are opposite dispositions28 of the stomach itself; it yearns29 after and tends towards what is advantageous30 and proper to it, it loathes31 and rids itself of what is foreign. Thus the actual process of swallowing occurs very quickly in those who have a good appetite for such foods as are proper to the stomach; this organ obviously draws them in and down before they are masticated32; whereas in the case of those who are forced to take a medicinal draught33 or who take food as medicine, the swallowing of these articles is accomplished34 with distress35 and difficulty.
From what has been said, then, it is clear that the inner coat of the stomach (that containing longitudinal fibres) exists for the purpose of exerting a pull the from to stomach, and that it is only in deglutition that it is active, whereas the external coat, which contains transverse fibres, has been so constituted in order that it may contract upon its contents and propel them forward; this coat furthermore, functions in vomiting no less than in swallowing. The truth of my statement is also borne out by what happens in the channae and synodonts;17 the stomachs of these animals are sometimes found in their mouths, as also Aristotle writes in his “History of Animals”; he also adds the cause of this: he says that it is owing to their voracity36.
The facts are as follows. In all animals, when the appetite is very intense, the stomach rises up, so that some people who have a clear perception of this condition say that their stomach “creeps out” of them; in others, who are still masticating37 their food and have not yet worked it up properly in the mouth, the stomach obviously snatches away the food from them against their will. In those animals, therefore, which are naturally voracious38, in whom the mouth cavity is of generous proportions, and the stomach situated39 close to it (as in the case of the synodont and channae), it is in no way surprising that, when they are sufficiently40 hungry and are pursuing one of the smaller animals, and are just on the point of catching41 it, the stomach should, under the impulse of desire, spring into the mouth. And this cannot possibly take place in any other way than by the stomach drawing the food to itself by means of the gullet, as though by a hand. In fact, just as we ourselves, in our eagerness to grasp more quickly something lying before us, sometimes stretch out our whole bodies along with our hands, so also the stomach stretches itself forward along with the gullet, which is, as it were, its hand. And thus, in these animals in whom those three factors co-exist — an excessive propensity42 for food, a small gullet, and ample mouth proportions — in these, any slight tendency to movement forwards brings the whole stomach into the mouth.
Now the constitution of the organs might itself suffice to give a naturalist43 an indication of their functions. For Nature would never have purposelessly constructed the oesophagus of two coats with contrary dispositions; they must also have each been meant to have a different action. The Erasistratean school, however, are capable of anything rather than of recognizing the effects of Nature. Come, therefore, let us demonstrate to them by animal dissection44 as well that each of the two coats does exercise the activity which I have stated. Take an animal, then; lay bare the structures surrounding the gullet, without severing45 any of the nerves, arteries46, or veins47 which are there situated; next divide with vertical48 incisions49, from the lower jaw50 to the thorax, the outer coat of the oesophagus (that containing transverse fibres); then give the animal food and you will see that it still swallows although the peristaltic function has been abolished. If, again, in another animal, you cut through both coats with transverse incisions, you will observe that this animal also swallows although the inner coat is no longer functioning. From this it is clear that the animal can also swallow by either of the two coats, although not so well as by both. For the following also, in addition to other points, may be distinctly observed in the dissection which I have described — that during deglutition the gullet becomes slightly filled with air which is swallowed along with the food, and that, when the outer coat is contracting, this air is easily forced with the food into the stomach, but that, when there only exists an inner coat, the air impedes51 the conveyance of food, by distending52 this coat and hindering its action.
But Erasistratus said nothing about this, nor did he point out that the oblique53 situation of the gullet clearly confutes the teaching of those who hold that it is simply by virtue54 of the impulse from above that food which is swallowed reaches the stomach. The only correct thing he said was that many of the longnecked animals bend down to swallow. Hence, clearly, the observed fact does not show how we swallow but how we do not swallow. For from this observation it is clear that swallowing is not due merely to the impulse from above; it is yet, however, not clear whether it results from the food being attracted by the stomach, or conducted by the gullet. For our part, however, having enumerated55 all the different considerations — those based on the constitution of the organs, as well as those based on the other symptoms which, as just mentioned, occur both before and after the gullet has been exposed — we have thus sufficiently proved that the inner coast exists for the purpose of attraction and the outer for the purpose of propulsion.
Now the original task we set before ourselves was to demonstrate that the retentive56 faculty57 exists in every one of the organs, just as in the previous book we proved the existence of the attractive, and, over and above this, the alterative58 faculty. Thus, in the natural course of our argument, we have demonstrated these four faculties59 existing in the stomach — the attractive faculty in connection with swallowing, the retentive with digestion, the expulsive with vomiting and with the descent of digested food into the small intestine4 — and digestion itself we have shown to be a process of alteration60.
点击收听单词发音
1 digestion | |
n.消化,吸收 | |
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2 traction | |
n.牵引;附着摩擦力 | |
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3 vigour | |
(=vigor)n.智力,体力,精力 | |
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4 intestine | |
adj.内部的;国内的;n.肠 | |
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5 intestines | |
n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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6 tighten | |
v.(使)变紧;(使)绷紧 | |
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7 tightened | |
收紧( tighten的过去式和过去分词 ); (使)变紧; (使)绷紧; 加紧 | |
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8 drawn | |
v.拖,拉,拔出;adj.憔悴的,紧张的 | |
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9 curtail | |
vt.截短,缩短;削减 | |
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10 curtailed | |
v.截断,缩短( curtail的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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11 curtailment | |
n.缩减,缩短 | |
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12 upwards | |
adv.向上,在更高处...以上 | |
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13 downwards | |
adj./adv.向下的(地),下行的(地) | |
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14 contraction | |
n.缩略词,缩写式,害病 | |
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15 lessen | |
vt.减少,减轻;缩小 | |
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16 dilate | |
vt.使膨胀,使扩大 | |
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17 whatsoever | |
adv.(用于否定句中以加强语气)任何;pron.无论什么 | |
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18 peculiar | |
adj.古怪的,异常的;特殊的,特有的 | |
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19 vomit | |
v.呕吐,作呕;n.呕吐物,吐出物 | |
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20 vomiting | |
吐 | |
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21 mere | |
adj.纯粹的;仅仅,只不过 | |
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22 conveyance | |
n.(不动产等的)转让,让与;转让证书;传送;运送;表达;(正)运输工具 | |
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23 distended | |
v.(使)膨胀,肿胀( distend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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24 dilates | |
v.(使某物)扩大,膨胀,张大( dilate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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25 precisely | |
adv.恰好,正好,精确地,细致地 | |
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26 remains | |
n.剩余物,残留物;遗体,遗迹 | |
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27 helping | |
n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的,辅助的 | |
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28 dispositions | |
安排( disposition的名词复数 ); 倾向; (财产、金钱的)处置; 气质 | |
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29 yearns | |
渴望,切盼,向往( yearn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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30 advantageous | |
adj.有利的;有帮助的 | |
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31 loathes | |
v.憎恨,厌恶( loathe的第三人称单数 );极不喜欢 | |
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32 masticated | |
v.咀嚼( masticate的过去式和过去分词 );粉碎,磨烂 | |
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33 draught | |
n.拉,牵引,拖;一网(饮,吸,阵);顿服药量,通风;v.起草,设计 | |
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34 accomplished | |
adj.有才艺的;有造诣的;达到了的 | |
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35 distress | |
n.苦恼,痛苦,不舒适;不幸;vt.使悲痛 | |
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36 voracity | |
n.贪食,贪婪 | |
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37 masticating | |
v.咀嚼( masticate的现在分词 );粉碎,磨烂 | |
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38 voracious | |
adj.狼吞虎咽的,贪婪的 | |
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39 situated | |
adj.坐落在...的,处于某种境地的 | |
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40 sufficiently | |
adv.足够地,充分地 | |
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41 catching | |
adj.易传染的,有魅力的,迷人的,接住 | |
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42 propensity | |
n.倾向;习性 | |
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43 naturalist | |
n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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44 dissection | |
n.分析;解剖 | |
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45 severing | |
v.切断,断绝( sever的现在分词 );断,裂 | |
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46 arteries | |
n.动脉( artery的名词复数 );干线,要道 | |
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47 veins | |
n.纹理;矿脉( vein的名词复数 );静脉;叶脉;纹理 | |
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48 vertical | |
adj.垂直的,顶点的,纵向的;n.垂直物,垂直的位置 | |
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49 incisions | |
n.切开,切口( incision的名词复数 ) | |
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50 jaw | |
n.颚,颌,说教,流言蜚语;v.喋喋不休,教训 | |
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51 impedes | |
阻碍,妨碍,阻止( impede的第三人称单数 ) | |
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52 distending | |
v.(使)膨胀,肿胀( distend的现在分词 ) | |
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53 oblique | |
adj.斜的,倾斜的,无诚意的,不坦率的 | |
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54 virtue | |
n.德行,美德;贞操;优点;功效,效力 | |
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55 enumerated | |
v.列举,枚举,数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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56 retentive | |
v.保留的,有记忆的;adv.有记性地,记性强地;n.保持力 | |
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57 faculty | |
n.才能;学院,系;(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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58 alterative | |
adj.(趋于)改变的,变质的,使体质逐渐康复的n.变质剂,体质改善疗法 | |
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59 faculties | |
n.能力( faculty的名词复数 );全体教职员;技巧;院 | |
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60 alteration | |
n.变更,改变;蚀变 | |
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