§176. That the aggressor, who puts himself into the state of war with another, and unjustly invades another man’s right, can, by such an unjust war, never come to have a right over the conquered, will be easily agreed by all men, who will not think, that robbers and pyrates have a right of empire over whomsoever they have force enough to master; or that men are bound by promises, which unlawful force extorts5 from them. Should a robber break into my house, and with a dagger6 at my throat make me seal deeds to convey my estate to him, would this give him any title? Just such a title, by his sword, has an unjust conqueror7, who forces me into submission8. The injury and the crime is equal, whether committed by the wearer of a crown, or some petty villain9. The title of the offender10, and the number of his followers11, make no difference in the offence, unless it be to aggravate12 it. The only difference is, great robbers punish little ones, to keep them in their obedience13; but the great ones are rewarded with laurels14 and triumphs, because they are too big for the weak hands of justice in this world, and have the power in their own possession, which should punish offenders15. What is my remedy against a robber, that so broke into my house? Appeal to the law for justice. But perhaps justice is denied, or I am crippled and cannot stir, robbed and have not the means to do it. If God has taken away all means of seeking remedy, there is nothing left but patience. But my son, when able, may seek the relief of the law, which I am denied: he or his son may renew his appeal, till he recover his right. But the conquered, or their children, have no court, no arbitrator on earth to appeal to. Then they may appeal, as lephtha did, to heaven, and repeat their appeal till they have recovered the native right of their ancestors, which was, to have such a legislative16 over them, as the majority should approve, and freely acquiesce17 in. If it be objected, This would cause endless trouble; I answer, no more than justice does, where she lies open to all that appeal to her. He that troubles his neighbour without a cause, is punished for it by the justice of the court he appeals to: and he that appeals to heaven must be sure he has right on his side; and a right too that is worth the trouble and cost of the appeal, as he will answer at a tribunal that cannot be deceived, and will be sure to retribute to every one according to the mischiefs18 he hath created to his fellow subjects; that is, any part of mankind: from whence it is plain, that he that conquers in an unjust war can thereby19 have no title to the subjection and obedience of the conquered.
§177. But supposing victory favours the right side, let us consider a conqueror in a lawful4 war, and see what power he gets, and over whom.
First, It is plain he gets no power by his conquest over those that conquered with him. They that fought on his side cannot suffer by the conquest, but must at least be as much freemen as they were before. And most commonly they serve upon terms, and on condition to share with their leader, and enjoy a part of the spoil, and other advantages that attend the conquering sword; or at least have a part of the subdued20 country bestowed21 upon them. And the conquering people are not, I hope, to be slaves by conquest, and wear their laurels only to shew they are sacrifices to their leaders triumph. They that found absolute monarchy22 upon the title of the sword, make their heroes, who are the founders23 of such monarchies24, arrant25 Draw-can-sirs, and forget they had any officers and soldiers that fought on their side in the battles they won, or assisted them in the subduing26, or shared in possessing, the countries they mastered. We are told by some, that the English monarchy is founded in the Norman conquest, and that our princes have thereby a title to absolute dominion27: which if it were true, (as by the history it appears otherwise) and that William had a right to make war on this island; yet his dominion by conquest could reach no farther than to the Saxons and Britons, that were then inhabitants of this country. The Normans that came with him, and helped to conquer, and all descended28 from them, are freemen, and no subjects by conquest; let that give what dominion it will. And if 1, or any body else, shall claim freedom, as derived30 from them, it will be very hard to prove the contrary: and it is plain, the law, that has made no distinction between the one and the other, intends not there should be any difference in their freedom or privileges.
§178. But supposing, which seldom happens, that the conquerors31 and conquered never incorporate into one people, under the same laws and freedom; let us see next what power a lawful conqueror has over the subdued: and that I say is purely32 despotical. He has an absolute power over the lives of those who by an unjust war have forfeited34 them; but not over the lives or fortunes of those who engaged not in the war, nor over the possessions even of those who were actually engaged in it.
§179. Secondly35, I say then the conqueror gets no power but only over those who have actually assisted, concurred36, or consented to that unjust force that is used against him: for the people having given to their governors no power to do an unjust thing, such as is to make an unjust war, (for they never had such a power in themselves) they ought not to be charged as guilty of the violence and unjustice that is committed in an unjust war, any farther than they actually abet38 it; no more than they are to be thought guilty of any violence or oppression their governors should use upon the people themselves, or any part of their fellow subjects, they having empowered them no more to the one than to the other. Conquerors, it is true, seldom trouble themselves to make the distinction, but they willingly permit the confusion of war to sweep all together: but yet this alters not the right; for the conquerors power over the lives of the conquered, being only because they have used force to do, or maintain an injustice39, he can have that power only over those who have concurred in that force; all the rest are innocent; and he has no more title over the people of that country, who have done him no injury, and so have made no forfeiture40 of their lives, than he has over any other, who, without any injuries or provocations41, have lived upon fair terms with him.
§180. Thirdly, The power a conqueror gets over those he overcomes in a just war, is perfectly42 despotical: he has an absolute power over the lives of those, who, by putting themselves in a state of war, have forfeited them; but he has not thereby a right and title to their possessions. This I doubt not, but at first sight will seem a strange doctrine43, it being so quite contrary to the practice of the world; there being nothing more familiar in speaking of the dominion of countries, than to say such an one conquered it; as if conquest, without any more ado, conveyed a right of possession. But when we consider, that the practice of the strong and powerful, how universal soever it may be, is seldom the rule of right, however it be one part of the subjection of the conquered, not to argue against the conditions cut out to them by the conquering sword.
§181. Though in all war there be usually a complication of force and damage, and the aggressor seldom fails to harm the estate, when he uses force against the persons of those he makes war upon; yet it is the use of force only that puts a man into the state of war: for whether by force he begins the injury, or else having quietly, and by fraud, done the injury, he refuses to make reparation, and by force maintains it, (which is the same thing, as at first to have done it by force) it is the unjust use of force that makes the war: for he that breaks open my house, and violently turns me out of doors; or having peaceably got in, by force keeps me out, does in effect the same thing; supposing we are in such a state, that we have no common judge on earth, whom I may appeal to, and to whom we are both obliged to submit: for of such I am now speaking. It is the unjust use of force then, that puts a man into the state of war with another; and thereby he that is guilty of it makes a forfeiture of his life: for quitting reason, which is the rule given between man and man, and using force, the way of beasts, he becomes liable to be destroyed by him he uses force against, as any savage44 ravenous45 beast, that is dangerous to his being.
§182. But because the miscarriages46 of the father are no faults of the children, and they may be rational and peaceable, notwithstanding the brutishness and injustice of the father; the father, by his miscarriages and violence, can forfeit33 but his own life, but involves not his children in his guilt37 or destruction. His goods, which nature, that willeth the preservation48 of all mankind as much as is possible, hath made to belong to the children to keep them from perishing, do still continue to belong to his children: for supposing them not to have joined in the war, either thro’ infancy49, absence, or choice, they have done nothing to forfeit them: nor has the conqueror any right to take them away, by the bare title of having subdued him that by force attempted his destruction; though perhaps he may have some right to them, to repair the damages he has sustained by the war, and the defence of his own right; which how far it reaches to the possessions of the conquered, we shall see by and by. So that he that by conquest has a right over a man’s person to destroy him if he pleases, has not thereby a right over his estate to possess and enjoy it: for it is the brutal50 force the aggressor has used, that gives his adversary51 a right to take away his life, and destroy him if he pleases, as a noxious52 creature; but it is damage sustained that alone gives him title to another man’s goods: for though I may kill a thief that sets on me in the highway, yet I may not (which seems less) take away his money, and let him go: this would be robbery on my side. His force, and the state of war he put himself in, made him forfeit his life, but gave me no title to his goods. The right then of conquest extends only to the lives of those who joined in the war, not to their estates, but only in order to make reparation for the damages received, and the charges of the war, and that too with reservation of the right of the innocent wife and children.
§183. Let the conqueror have as much justice on his side, as could be supposed, he has no right to seize more than the vanquished53 could forfeit: his life is at the victor’s mercy; and his service and goods he may appropriate, to make himself reparation; but he cannot take the goods of his wife and children; they too had a title to the goods he enjoyed, and their shares in the estate he possessed54: for example, I in the state of nature (and all commonwealths55 are in the state of nature one with another) have injured another man, and refusing to give satisfaction, it comes to a state of war, wherein my defending by force what I had gotten unjustly, makes me the aggressor. I am conquered: my life, it is true, as forfeit, is at mercy, but not my wife’s and children’s. They made not the war, nor assisted in it. I could not forfeit their lives; they were not mine to forfeit. My wife had a share in my estate; that neither could I forfeit. And my children also, being born of me, had a right to be maintained out of my labour or substance. Here then is the case: the conqueror has a title to reparation for damages received, and the children have a title to their father’s estate for their subsistence: for as to the wife’s share, whether her own labour, or compact, gave her a title to it, it is plain, her husband could not forfeit what was her’s . What must be done in the case? I answer; the fundamental law of nature being, that all, as much as may be, should be preserved, it follows, that if there be not enough fully56 to satisfy both, viz, for the conqueror’s losses, and children’s maintenance, he that hath, and to spare, must remit57 something of his full satisfaction, and give way to the pressing and preferable title of those who are in danger to perish without it.
§184. But supposing the charge and damages of the war are to be made up to the conqueror, to the utmost farthing; and that the children of the vanquished, spoiled of all their father’s goods, are to be left to starve and perish; yet the satisfying of what shall, on this score, be due to the conqueror, will scarce give him a title to any country he shall conquer: for the damages of war can scarce amount to the value of any considerable tract58 of land, in any part of the world, where all the land is possessed, and none lies waste. And if I have not taken away the conqueror’s land, which, being vanquished, it is impossible I should; scarce any other spoil I have done him can amount to the value of mine, supposing it equally cultivated, and of an extent any way coming near what I had overrun of his. The destruction of a year’s product or two (for it seldom reaches four or five) is the utmost spoil that usually can be done: for as to money, and such riches and treasure taken away, these are none of nature’s goods, they have but a fantastical imaginary value: nature has put no such upon them: they are of no more account by her standard, than the wampompeke of the Americans to an European prince, or the silver money of Europe would have been formerly59 to an American. And five years product is not worth the perpetual inheritance of land, where all is possessed, and none remains60 waste, to be taken up by him that is disseized: which will be easily granted, if one do but take away the imaginary value of money, the disproportion being more than between five and five hundred; though, at the same time, half a year’s product is more worth than the inheritance, where there being more land than the inhabitants possess and make use of, any one has liberty to make use of the waste: but there conquerors take little care to possess themselves of the lands of the vanquished, No damage therefore, that men in the state of nature (as all princes and governments are in reference to one another) suffer from one another, can give a conqueror power to dispossess the posterity61 of the vanquished, and turn them out of that inheritance, which ought to be the possession of them and their descendants to all generations. The conqueror indeed will be apt to think himself master: and it is the very condition of the subdued not to be able to dispute their right. But if that be all, it gives no other title than what bare force gives to the stronger over the weaker: and, by this reason, he that is strongest will have a right to whatever he pleases to seize on.
§185. Over those then that joined with him in the war, and over those of the subdued country that opposed him not, and the posterity even of those that did, the conqueror, even in a just war, hath, by his conquest, no right of dominion: they are free from any subjection to him, and if their former government be dissolved, they are at liberty to begin and erect another to themselves.
§186. The conqueror, it is true, usually, by the force he has over them, compels them, with a sword at their breasts, to stoop to his conditions, and submit to such a government as he pleases to afford them; but the enquiry is, what right he has to do so? If it be said, they submit by their own consent, then this allows their own consent to be necessary to give the conqueror a title to rule over them. It remains only to be considered, whether promises extorted62 by force, without right, can be thought consent, and how far they bind63. To which I shall say, they bind not at all; because whatsoever64 another gets from me by force, I still retain the right of, and he is obliged presently to restore. He that forces my horse from me, ought presently to restore him, and I have still a right to retake him. By the same reason, he that forced a promise from me, ought presently to restore it, i.e. quit me of the obligation of it; or I may resume it myself, i.e. chuse whether I will perform it: for the law of nature laying an obligation on me only by the rules she prescribes, cannot oblige me by the violation65 of her rules: such is the extorting66 any thing from me by force. Nor does it at all alter the case to say, I gave my promise, no more than it excuses the force, and passes the right, when I put my hand in my pocket, and deliver my purse myself to a thief, who demands it with a pistol at my breast.
§187. From all which it follows, that the government of a conqueror, imposed by force on the subdued, against whom he had no right of war, or who joined not in the war against him, where he had right, has no obligation upon them.
§188. But let us suppose, that all the men of that community, being all members of the same body politic67, may be taken to have joined in that unjust war wherein they are subdued, and so their lives are at the mercy of the conqueror.
§189. 1 say, this concerns not their children who are in their minority: for since a father hath not, in himself, a power over the life or liberty of his child, no act of his can possibly forfeit it. So that the children, whatever may have happened to the fathers, are freemen, and the absolute power of the conqueror reaches no farther than the persons of the men that were subdued by him, and dies with them: and should he govern them as slaves, subjected to his absolute arbitrary power, he has no such right of dominion over their children. He can have no power over them but by their own consent, whatever he may drive them to say or do; and he has no lawfull authority, whilst force, and not choice, compels them to submission.
§190. Every man is born with a double right: first, a right of freedom to his person, which no other man has a power over, but the free disposal of it lies in himself. Secondly, a right, before any other man, to inherit with his brethren his father’s goods.
§191. By the first of these, a man is naturally free from subjection to any government, tho’ he be born in a place under its jurisdiction68; but if he disclaim69 the lawful government of the country he was born in, he must also quit the right that belonged to him by the laws of it, and the possessions there descending70 to him from his ancestors, if it were a government made by their consent.
§192. By the second, the inhabitants of any country, who are descended, and derive29 a title to their estates from those who are subdued, and had a government forced upon them against their free consents, retain a right to the possession of their ancestors, though they consent not freely to the government, whose hard conditions were by force imposed on the possessors of that country: for the first conqueror never having had a title to the land of that country, the people who are the descendants of, or claim under those who were forced to submit to the yoke71 of a government by constraint72, have always a right to shake it off, and free themselves from the usurpation73 or tyranny which the sword hath brought in upon them, till their rulers put them under such a frame of government as they willingly and of choice consent to. Who doubts but the Grecian Christians74, descendants of the ancient possessors of that country, may justly cast off the Turkish yoke, which they have so long groaned75 under, whenever they have an opportunity to do it? For no government can have a right to obedience from a people who have not freely consented to it; which they can never be supposed to do, till either they are put in a full state of liberty to chuse their government and governors, or at least till they have such standing47 laws, to which they have by themselves or their representatives given their free consent, and also till they are allowed their due property, which is so to be proprietors76 of what they have, that no body can take away any part of it without their own consent, without which, men under any government are not in the state of freemen, but are direct slaves under the force of war.
§193. But granting that the conqueror in a just war has a right to the estates, as well as power over the persons, of the conquered; which, it is plain, he hath not: nothing of absolute power will follow from hence, in the continuance of the government; because the descendants of these being all freemen, if he grants them estates and possessions to inhabit his country, (without which it would be worth nothing) whatsoever he grants them, they have, so far as it is granted, property in. The nature whereof is, that without a man’s own consent it cannot be taken from him,
§194. Their persons are free by a native right, and their properties, be they more or less, are their own, and at their own dispose, and not at his; or else it is no property. Supposing the conqueror gives to one man a thousand acres, to him and his heirs for ever; to another he lets a thousand acres for his life, under the rent of 501. or 5001. per arm. has not the one of these a right to his thousand acres for ever, and the other, during his life, paying the said rent? and hath not the tenant77 for life a property in all that he gets over and above his rent, by his labour and industry during the said term, supposing it be double the rent? Can any one say, the king, or conqueror, after his grant, may by his power of conqueror take away all, or part of the land from the heirs of one, or from the other during his life, he paying the rent? or can he take away from either the goods or money they have got upon the said land, at his pleasure? If he can, then all free and voluntary contracts cease, and are void in the world; there needs nothing to dissolve them at any time, but power enough: and all the grants and promises of men in power are but mockery and collusion: for can there be any thing more ridiculous than to say, I give you and your’s this for ever, and that in the surest and most solemn way of conveyance78 can be devised; and yet it is to be understood, that I have right, if I please, to take it away from you again to morrow?
§195. 1 will not dispute now whether princes are exempt79 from the laws of their country; but this I am sure, they owe subjection to the laws of God and nature. No body, no power, can exempt them from the obligations of that eternal law. Those are so great, and so strong, in the case of promises, that omnipotency itself can be tied by them. Grants, promises, and oaths, are bonds that hold the Almighty80: whatever some flatterers say to princes of the world, who all together, with all their people joined to them, are, in comparison of the great God, but as a drop of the bucket, or a dust on the balance, inconsiderable, nothing!
§196. The short of the case in conquest is this: the conqueror, if he have a just cause, has a despotical right over the persons of all, that actually aided, and concurred in the war against him, and a right to make up his damage and cost out of their labour and estates, so he injure not the right of any other. Over the rest of the people, if there were any that consented not to the war, and over the children of the captives themselves, or the possessions of either, he has no power; and so can have, by virtue81 of conquest, no lawful title himself to dominion over them, or derive it to his posterity; but is an aggressor, if he attempts upon their properties, and thereby puts himself in a state of war against them, and has no better a right of principality, he, nor any of his successors, than Hingar, or Hubba, the Danes, had here in England; or Spartacus, had he conquered Italy, would have had; which is to have their yoke cast off, as soon as God shall give those under their subjection courage and opportunity to do it. Thus, notwithstanding whatever title the kings of Assyria had over Judah, by the sword, God assisted Hezekiah to throw off the dominion of that conquering empire. And the lord was with Hezekiah, and he prospered82; wherefore he went forth83, and he rebelled against the king of Assyria, and served him not, 2 Kings xviii. 7. Whence it is plain, that shaking off a power, which force, and not right, hath set over any one, though it hath the name of rebellion, yet is no offence before God, but is that which he allows and countenances84, though even promises and covenants85, when obtained by force, have intervened: for it is very probable, to any one that reads the story of Ahaz and Hezekiah attentively86, that the Assyrians subdued Ahaz, and deposed87 him, and made Hezekiah king in his father’s lifetime; and that Hezekiah by agreement had done him homage88, and paid him tribute all this time.
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1
disorders
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| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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demolishing
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| v.摧毁( demolish的现在分词 )；推翻；拆毁（尤指大建筑物）；吃光 | |
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erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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extorts
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| v.敲诈( extort的第三人称单数 )；曲解 | |
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dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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villain
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| n.反派演员，反面人物；恶棍；问题的起因 | |
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offender
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| n.冒犯者，违反者，犯罪者 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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aggravate
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| vt.加重(剧)，使恶化；激怒，使恼火 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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laurels
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| n.桂冠，荣誉 | |
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offenders
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| n.冒犯者( offender的名词复数 )；犯规者；罪犯；妨害…的人（或事物） | |
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legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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acquiesce
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| vi.默许，顺从，同意 | |
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mischiefs
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| 损害( mischief的名词复数 )； 危害； 胡闹； 调皮捣蛋的人 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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monarchy
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| n.君主，最高统治者；君主政体，君主国 | |
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founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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arrant
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| adj.极端的；最大的 | |
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subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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forfeit
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| vt.丧失；n.罚金，罚款，没收物 | |
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forfeited
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| （因违反协议、犯规、受罚等）丧失，失去( forfeit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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concurred
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| 同意（concur的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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guilt
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| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
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abet
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| v.教唆，鼓励帮助 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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forfeiture
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| n.（名誉等）丧失 | |
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provocations
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| n.挑衅( provocation的名词复数 )；激怒；刺激；愤怒的原因 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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ravenous
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| adj.极饿的，贪婪的 | |
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miscarriages
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| 流产( miscarriage的名词复数 ) | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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adversary
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| adj.敌手，对手 | |
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noxious
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| adj.有害的，有毒的；使道德败坏的，讨厌的 | |
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vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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commonwealths
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| n.共和国( commonwealth的名词复数 )；联邦；团体；协会 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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remit
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| v.汇款，汇寄；豁免（债务），免除（处罚等） | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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extorted
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| v.敲诈( extort的过去式和过去分词 )；曲解 | |
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bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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violation
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| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
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extorting
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| v.敲诈( extort的现在分词 )；曲解 | |
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politic
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| adj.有智虑的；精明的；v.从政 | |
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jurisdiction
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| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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disclaim
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| v.放弃权利，拒绝承认 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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constraint
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| n.(on)约束，限制；限制(或约束)性的事物 | |
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usurpation
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| n.篡位；霸占 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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groaned
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| v.呻吟( groan的过去式和过去分词 )；发牢骚；抱怨；受苦 | |
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proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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tenant
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| n.承租人；房客；佃户；v.租借，租用 | |
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conveyance
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| n.(不动产等的)转让，让与；转让证书；传送；运送；表达；（正）运输工具 | |
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exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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prospered
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| 成功，兴旺( prosper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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countenances
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| n.面容( countenance的名词复数 )；表情；镇静；道义支持 | |
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covenants
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| n.（有法律约束的）协议( covenant的名词复数 )；盟约；公约；（向慈善事业、信托基金会等定期捐款的）契约书 | |
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86
attentively
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| adv.聚精会神地；周到地；谛；凝神 | |
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deposed
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| v.罢免( depose的过去式和过去分词 )；（在法庭上）宣誓作证 | |
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homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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