More than that. The nomad10 and romantic in him, troubled and restless with Ukrainian myth, legend, and song, impressed upon Russian literature, faced with the realities of modern life, a spirit titanic11 and in clash with its material, and produced in the mastery of this every-day material, commonly called sordid12, a phantasmagoria intense with beauty. A clue to all Russian realism may be found in a Russian critic’s observation about Gogol: “Seldom has nature created a man so romantic in bent13, yet so masterly in portraying14 all that is unromantic in life.” But this statement does not cover the whole ground, for it is easy to see in almost all of Gogol’s work his “free Cossack soul” trying to break through the shell of sordid to-day like some ancient demon15, essentially16 Dionysian. So that his works, true though they are to our life, are at once a reproach, a protest, and a challenge, ever calling for joy, ancient joy, that is no more with us. And they have all the joy and sadness of the Ukrainian songs he loved so much. Ukrainian was to Gogol “the language of the soul,” and it was in Ukrainian songs rather than in old chronicles, of which he was not a little contemptuous, that he read the history of his people. Time and again, in his essays and in his letters to friends, he expresses his boundless17 joy in these songs: “O songs, you are my joy and my life! How I love you. What are the bloodless chronicles I pore over beside those clear, live chronicles! I cannot live without songs; they . . . reveal everything more and more clearly, oh, how clearly, gone-by life and gone-by men. . . . The songs of Little Russia are her everything, her poetry, her history, and her ancestral grave. He who has not penetrated18 them deeply knows nothing of the past of this blooming region of Russia.”
Indeed, so great was his enthusiasm for his own land that after collecting material for many years, the year 1833 finds him at work on a history of “poor Ukraine,” a work planned to take up six volumes; and writing to a friend at this time he promises to say much in it that has not been said before him. Furthermore, he intended to follow this work with a universal history in eight volumes with a view to establishing, as far as may be gathered, Little Russia and the world in proper relation, connecting the two; a quixotic task, surely. A poet, passionate19, religious, loving the heroic, we find him constantly impatient and fuming20 at the lifeless chronicles, which leave him cold as he seeks in vain for what he cannot find. “Nowhere,” he writes in 1834, “can I find anything of the time which ought to be richer than any other in events. Here was a people whose whole existence was passed in activity, and which, even if nature had made it inactive, was compelled to go forward to great affairs and deeds because of its neighbours, its geographic22 situation, the constant danger to its existence. . . . If the Crimeans and the Turks had had a literature I am convinced that no history of an independent nation in Europe would prove so interesting as that of the Cossacks.” Again he complains of the “withered chronicles”; it is only the wealth of his country’s song that encourages him to go on with its history.
Too much a visionary and a poet to be an impartial23 historian, it is hardly astonishing to note the judgment24 he passes on his own work, during that same year, 1834: “My history of Little Russia’s past is an extraordinarily25 made thing, and it could not be otherwise.” The deeper he goes into Little Russia’s past the more fanatically he dreams of Little Russia’s future. St. Petersburg wearies him, Moscow awakens26 no emotion in him, he yearns27 for Kieff, the mother of Russian cities, which in his vision he sees becoming “the Russian Athens.” Russian history gives him no pleasure, and he separates it definitely from Ukrainian history. He is “ready to cast everything aside rather than read Russian history,” he writes to Pushkin. During his seven-year stay in St. Petersburg (1829-36) Gogol zealously28 gathered historical material and, in the words of Professor Kotlyarevsky, “lived in the dream of becoming the Thucydides of Little Russia.” How completely he disassociated Ukrainia from Northern Russia may be judged by the conspectus of his lectures written in 1832. He says in it, speaking of the conquest of Southern Russia in the fourteenth century by Prince Guedimin at the head of his Lithuanian host, still dressed in the skins of wild beasts, still worshipping the ancient fire and practising pagan rites21: “Then Southern Russia, under the mighty29 protection of Lithuanian princes, completely separated itself from the North. Every bond between them was broken; two kingdoms were established under a single name — Russia — one under the Tatar yoke30, the other under the same rule with Lithuanians. But actually they had no relation with one another; different laws, different customs, different aims, different bonds, and different activities gave them wholly different characters.”
This same Prince Guedimin freed Kieff from the Tatar yoke. This city had been laid waste by the golden hordes31 of Ghengis Khan and hidden for a very long time from the Slavonic chronicler as behind an impenetrable curtain. A shrewd man, Guedimin appointed a Slavonic prince to rule over the city and permitted the inhabitants to practise their own faith, Greek Christianity. Prior to the Mongol invasion, which brought conflagration32 and ruin, and subjected Russia to a two-century bondage33, cutting her off from Europe, a state of chaos34 existed and the separate tribes fought with one another constantly and for the most petty reasons. Mutual35 depredations36 were possible owing to the absence of mountain ranges; there were no natural barriers against sudden attack. The openness of the steppe made the people war-like. But this very openness made it possible later for Guedimin’s pagan hosts, fresh from the fir forests of what is now White Russia, to make a clean sweep of the whole country between Lithuania and Poland, and thus give the scattered37 princedoms a much-needed cohesion38. In this way Ukrainia was formed. Except for some forests, infested39 with bears, the country was one vast plain, marked by an occasional hillock. Whole herds40 of wild horses and deer stampeded the country, overgrown with tall grass, while flocks of wild goats wandered among the rocks of the Dnieper. Apart from the Dnieper, and in some measure the Desna, emptying into it, there were no navigable rivers and so there was little opportunity for a commercial people. Several tributaries42 cut across, but made no real boundary line. Whether you looked to the north towards Russia, to the east towards the Tatars, to the south towards the Crimean Tatars, to the west towards Poland, everywhere the country bordered on a field, everywhere on a plain, which left it open to the invader43 from every side. Had there been here, suggests Gogol in his introduction to his never-written history of Little Russia, if upon one side only, a real frontier of mountain or sea, the people who settled here might have formed a definite political body. Without this natural protection it became a land subject to constant attack and despoliation44. “There where three hostile nations came in contact it was manured with bones, wetted with blood. A single Tatar invasion destroyed the whole labour of the soil-tiller; the meadows and the cornfields were trodden down by horses or destroyed by flame, the lightly-built habitations reduced to the ground, the inhabitants scattered or driven off into captivity45 together with cattle. It was a land of terror, and for this reason there could develop in it only a warlike people, strong in its unity41 and desperate, a people whose whole existence was bound to be trained and confined to war.”
This constant menace, this perpetual pressure of foes46 on all sides, acted at last like a fierce hammer shaping and hardening resistance against itself. The fugitive47 from Poland, the fugitive from the Tatar and the Turk, homeless, with nothing to lose, their lives ever exposed to danger, forsook48 their peaceful occupations and became transformed into a warlike people, known as the Cossacks, whose appearance towards the end of the thirteenth century or at the beginning of the fourteenth was a remarkable49 event which possibly alone (suggests Gogol) prevented any further inroads by the two Mohammedan nations into Europe. The appearance of the Cossacks was coincident with the appearance in Europe of brotherhoods50 and knighthood-orders, and this new race, in spite of its living the life of marauders, in spite of turnings its foes’ tactics upon its foes, was not free of the religious spirit of its time; if it warred for its existence it warred not less for its faith, which was Greek. Indeed, as the nation grew stronger and became conscious of its strength, the struggle began to partake something of the nature of a religious war, not alone defensive53 but aggressive also, against the unbeliever. While any man was free to join the brotherhood51 it was obligatory54 to believe in the Greek faith. It was this religious unity, blazed into activity by the presence across the borders of unbelieving nations, that alone indicated the germ of a political body in this gathering55 of men, who otherwise lived the audacious lives of a band of highway robbers. “There was, however,” says Gogol, “none of the austerity of the Catholic knight52 in them; they bound themselves to no vows56 or fasts; they put no self-restraint upon themselves or mortified57 their flesh, but were indomitable like the rocks of the Dnieper among which they lived, and in their furious feasts and revels58 they forgot the whole world. That same intimate brotherhood, maintained in robber communities, bound them together. They had everything in common — wine, food, dwelling59. A perpetual fear, a perpetual danger, inspired them with a contempt towards life. The Cossack worried more about a good measure of wine than about his fate. One has to see this denizen60 of the frontier in his half-Tatar, half-Polish costume — which so sharply outlined the spirit of the borderland — galloping61 in Asiatic fashion on his horse, now lost in thick grass, now leaping with the speed of a tiger from ambush62, or emerging suddenly from the river or swamp, all clinging with mud, and appearing an image of terror to the Tatar . . . .”
Little by little the community grew and with its growing it began to assume a general character. The beginning of the sixteenth century found whole villages settled with families, enjoying the protection of the Cossacks, who exacted certain obligations, chiefly military, so that these settlements bore a military character. The sword and the plough were friends which fraternised at every settler’s. On the other hand, Gogol tells us, the gay bachelors began to make depredations across the border to sweep down on Tatars’ wives and their daughters and to marry them. “Owing to this co-mingling, their facial features, so different from one another’s, received a common impress, tending towards the Asiatic. And so there came into being a nation in faith and place belonging to Europe; on the other hand, in ways of life, customs, and dress quite Asiatic. It was a nation in which the world’s two extremes came in contact; European caution and Asiatic indifference63, niavete and cunning, an intense activity and the greatest laziness and indulgence, an aspiration64 to development and perfection, and again a desire to appear indifferent to perfection.”
All of Ukraine took on its colour from the Cossack, and if I have drawn65 largely on Gogol’s own account of the origins of this race, it was because it seemed to me that Gogol’s emphasis on the heroic rather than on the historical — Gogol is generally discounted as an historian — would give the reader a proper approach to the mood in which he created “Taras Bulba,” the finest epic66 in Russian literature. Gogol never wrote either his history of Little Russia or his universal history. Apart from several brief studies, not always reliable, the net result of his many years’ application to his scholarly projects was this brief epic in prose, Homeric in mood. The sense of intense living, “living dangerously”— to use a phrase of Nietzsche’s, the recognition of courage as the greatest of all virtues67 — the God in man, inspired Gogol, living in an age which tended toward grey tedium68, with admiration69 for his more fortunate forefathers70, who lived in “a poetic71 time, when everything was won with the sword, when every one in his turn strove to be an active being and not a spectator.” Into this short work he poured all his love of the heroic, all his romanticism, all his poetry, all his joy. Its abundance of life bears one along like a fast-flowing river. And it is not without humour, a calm, detached humour, which, as the critic Bolinsky puts it, is not there merely “because Gogol has a tendency to see the comic in everything, but because it is true to life.”
Yet “Taras Bulba” was in a sense an accident, just as many other works of great men are accidents. It often requires a happy combination of circumstances to produce a masterpiece. I have already told in my introduction to “Dead Souls”[1] how Gogol created his great realistic masterpiece, which was to influence Russian literature for generations to come, under the influence of models so remote in time or place as “Don Quixote” or “Pickwick Papers”; and how this combination of influences joined to his own genius produced a work quite new and original in effect and only remotely reminiscent of the models which have inspired it. And just as “Dead Souls” might never have been written if “Don Quixote” had not existed, so there is every reason to believe that “Taras Bulba” could not have been written without the “Odyssey.” Once more ancient fire gave life to new beauty. And yet at the time Gogol could not have had more than a smattering of the “Odyssey.” The magnificent translation made by his friend Zhukovsky had not yet appeared and Gogol, in spite of his ambition to become a historian, was not equipped as a scholar. But it is evident from his dithyrambic letter on the appearance of Zhukovsky’s version, forming one of the famous series of letters known as “Correspondence with Friends,” that he was better acquainted with the spirit of Homer than any mere72 scholar could be. That letter, unfortunately unknown to the English reader, would make every lover of the classics in this day of their disparagement73 dance with joy. He describes the “Odyssey” as the forgotten source of all that is beautiful and harmonious74 in life, and he greets its appearance in Russian dress at a time when life is sordid and discordant75 as a thing inevitable76, “cooling” in effect upon a too hectic77 world. He sees in its perfect grace, its calm and almost childlike simplicity78, a power for individual and general good. “It combines all the fascination79 of a fairy tale and all the simple truth of human adventure, holding out the same allurement80 to every being, whether he is a noble, a commoner, a merchant, a literate81 or illiterate82 person, a private soldier, a lackey83, children of both sexes, beginning at an age when a child begins to love a fairy tale — all might read it or listen to it, without tedium.” Every one will draw from it what he most needs. Not less than upon these he sees its wholesome84 effect on the creative writer, its refreshing85 influence on the critic. But most of all he dwells on its heroic qualities, inseparable to him from what is religious in the “Odyssey”; and, says Gogol, this book contains the idea that a human being, “wherever he might be, whatever pursuit he might follow, is threatened by many woes86, that he must need wrestle87 with them — for that very purpose was life given to him — that never for a single instant must he despair, just as Odysseus did not despair, who in every hard and oppressive moment turned to his own heart, unaware88 that with this inner scrutiny89 of himself he had already said that hidden prayer uttered in a moment of distress90 by every man having no understanding whatever of God.” Then he goes on to compare the ancient harmony, perfect down to every detail of dress, to the slightest action, with our slovenliness91 and confusion and pettiness, a sad result — considering our knowledge of past experience, our possession of superior weapons, our religion given to make us holy and superior beings. And in conclusion he asks: Is not the “Odyssey” in every sense a deep reproach to our nineteenth century?
[1] Everyman’s Library, No. 726.
An understanding of Gogol’s point of view gives the key to “Taras Bulba.” For in this panoramic92 canvas of the Setch, the military brotherhood of the Cossacks, living under open skies, picturesquely93 and heroically, he has drawn a picture of his romantic ideal, which if far from perfect at any rate seemed to him preferable to the grey tedium of a city peopled with government officials. Gogol has written in “Taras Bulba” his own reproach to the nineteenth century. It is sad and joyous94 like one of those Ukrainian songs which have helped to inspire him to write it. And then, as he cut himself off more and more from the world of the past, life became a sadder and still sadder thing to him; modern life, with all its gigantic pettiness, closed in around him, he began to write of petty officials and of petty scoundrels, “commonplace heroes” he called them. But nothing is ever lost in this world. Gogol’s romanticism, shut in within himself, finding no outlet95, became a flame. It was a flame of pity. He was like a man walking in hell, pitying. And that was the miracle, the transfiguration. Out of that flame of pity the Russian novel was born.
JOHN COURNOS
Bibliography96
Evenings on the Farm near the Dikanka, 1829-31; Mirgorod, 1831-33; Taras Bulba, 1834; Arabesques97 (includes tales, The Portrait and A Madman’s Diary), 1831-35; The Cloak, 1835; The Revizor (The Inspector98- General), 1836; Dead Souls, 1842; Correspondence with Friends, 1847; Letters, 1847, 1895, 4 vols. 1902.
ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS: Cossack Tales (The Night of Christmas Eve, Tarass Boolba), trans. by G. Tolstoy, 1860; St. John’s Eve and Other Stories, trans. by Isabel F. Hapgood, New York, Crowell, 1886; Taras Bulba: Also St. John’s Eve and Other Stories, London, Vizetelly, 1887; Taras Bulba, trans. by B. C. Baskerville, London, Scott, 1907; The Inspector: a Comedy, Calcutta, 1890; The Inspector-General, trans. by A. A. Sykes, London, Scott, 1892; Revizor, trans. for the Yale Dramatic Association by Max S. Mandell, New Haven99, Conn., 1908; Home Life in Russia (adaptation of Dead Souls), London, Hurst, 1854; Tchitchikoff’s Journey’s; or Dead Souls, trans. by Isabel F. Hapgood, New York, Crowell, 1886; Dead Souls, London, Vizetelly, 1887; Dead Souls, London, Maxwell 1887; Dead Souls, London, Fisher Unwin, 1915; Dead Souls, London, Everyman’s Library (Intro. by John Cournos), 1915; Meditations100 on the Divine Liturgy101, trans. by L. Alexeieff, London, A. R. Mowbray and Co., 1913.
LIVES, etc.: (Russian) Kotlyarevsky (N. A.), 1903; Shenrok (V. I.), Materials for a Biography, 1892; (French) Leger (L.), Nicholas Gogol, 1914.
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1
enigmas
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| n.难于理解的问题、人、物、情况等，奥秘( enigma的名词复数 ) | |
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pompous
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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effete
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| adj.无生产力的，虚弱的 | |
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debris
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| n.瓦砾堆，废墟，碎片 | |
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sterility
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| n.不生育，不结果，贫瘠，消毒，无菌 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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veins
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| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
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virile
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| adj.男性的；有男性生殖力的；有男子气概的；强有力的 | |
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nostrils
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| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
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nomad
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| n.游牧部落的人，流浪者，游牧民 | |
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titanic
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| adj.巨人的，庞大的，强大的 | |
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sordid
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| adj.肮脏的，不干净的，卑鄙的，暗淡的 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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portraying
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| v.画像( portray的现在分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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demon
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| n.魔鬼，恶魔 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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fuming
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| 愤怒( fume的现在分词 )； 大怒； 发怒； 冒烟 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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geographic
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| adj.地理学的，地理的 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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extraordinarily
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| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
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awakens
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的第三人称单数 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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yearns
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| 渴望，切盼，向往( yearn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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zealously
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| adv.热心地；热情地；积极地；狂热地 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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hordes
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| n.移动着的一大群( horde的名词复数 )；部落 | |
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conflagration
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| n.建筑物或森林大火 | |
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bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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depredations
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| n.劫掠，毁坏( depredation的名词复数 ) | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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cohesion
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| n.团结，凝结力 | |
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infested
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| adj.为患的，大批滋生的（常与with搭配）v.害虫、野兽大批出没于( infest的过去式和过去分词 )；遍布于 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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tributaries
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| n. 支流 | |
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invader
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| n.侵略者，侵犯者，入侵者 | |
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despoliation
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| n.掠夺 | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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fugitive
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| adj.逃亡的，易逝的；n.逃犯，逃亡者 | |
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48
forsook
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| forsake的过去式 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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50
brotherhoods
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| 兄弟关系( brotherhood的名词复数 )； （总称）同行； （宗教性的）兄弟会； 同业公会 | |
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51
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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52
knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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obligatory
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| adj.强制性的，义务的，必须的 | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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mortified
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| v.使受辱( mortify的过去式和过去分词 )；伤害（人的感情）；克制；抑制（肉体、情感等） | |
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revels
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| n.作乐( revel的名词复数 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉v.作乐( revel的第三人称单数 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉 | |
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59
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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60
denizen
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| n.居民，外籍居民 | |
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galloping
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| adj. 飞驰的, 急性的 动词gallop的现在分词形式 | |
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ambush
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| n.埋伏(地点)；伏兵；v.埋伏；伏击 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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aspiration
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| n.志向，志趣抱负；渴望；(语)送气音；吸出 | |
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65
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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epic
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| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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68
tedium
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| n.单调；烦闷 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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70
forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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71
poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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disparagement
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| n.轻视，轻蔑 | |
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harmonious
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| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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discordant
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| adj.不调和的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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hectic
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| adj.肺病的；消耗热的；发热的；闹哄哄的 | |
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78
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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79
fascination
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| n.令人着迷的事物，魅力，迷恋 | |
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80
allurement
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| n.诱惑物 | |
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81
literate
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| n.学者；adj.精通文学的，受过教育的 | |
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illiterate
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| adj.文盲的；无知的；n.文盲 | |
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lackey
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| n.侍从；跟班 | |
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84
wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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85
refreshing
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| adj.使精神振作的，使人清爽的，使人喜欢的 | |
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woes
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| 困境( woe的名词复数 )； 悲伤； 我好苦哇； 某人就要倒霉 | |
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wrestle
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| vi.摔跤，角力；搏斗；全力对付 | |
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unaware
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| a.不知道的，未意识到的 | |
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89
scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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90
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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slovenliness
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panoramic
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| adj. 全景的 | |
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picturesquely
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joyous
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| adj.充满快乐的；令人高兴的 | |
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outlet
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| n.出口/路；销路；批发商店；通风口；发泄 | |
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bibliography
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| n.参考书目；(有关某一专题的)书目 | |
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arabesques
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| n.阿拉伯式花饰( arabesque的名词复数 )；错综图饰；阿拉伯图案；阿拉贝斯克芭蕾舞姿（独脚站立，手前伸，另一脚一手向后伸） | |
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inspector
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| n.检查员，监察员，视察员 | |
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99
haven
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| n.安全的地方，避难所，庇护所 | |
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100
meditations
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| 默想( meditation的名词复数 )； 默念； 沉思； 冥想 | |
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101
liturgy
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| n.礼拜仪式 | |
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