"Know, Nature's children all divide her care;
The fur that warms a monarch1 warmed a bear."
Pope.
In the foregoing experiments, the reader will have observed the significant words, "having killed a frog"—Abernethy not approving of experiments on living animals. When we reflect for a moment on the thousands of dreadful experiments which have been made on living animals, and the utter inconclusiveness of them for any useful purpose, there are, amongst the numerous errors by which so many philosophical3 inquiries4 have been delayed or defeated, few that are more lamentable5.
This mode of investigation6 has not, so far as we can see, produced any one useful discovery; whilst it has tended to obscure, by all that is disgusting and repulsive7, the true mode of cultivating a most alluring8 science.
But as we write, however humbly9, as physiologists10, and may be regarded as advocating the claims and attractions of that science with something of the esprit de métier, rather than in the cautious spirit which should characterize a philosophical discussion,—let us for one moment consider the claims of physiology12 on the attention of mankind.
Physiology has for its object the investigation of the functions and relations of the whole organic kingdom (the vegetable and animal creation), and cannot be successfully cultivated without consulting the phenomena13 in both these kingdoms of nature.
100
The branch of physiology most interesting to the medical philosopher is that which deals with the functions of animals in general, and of man in particular. The special interest to the medical philosopher is therefore obvious: let us just glance at its more general claims. Linn?us said that the world was one vast museum; and it illustrates14 the nature and attributes of the Deity15.
But how? In the first place, by the numerous evidences it everywhere presents, even to our finite capacities, of design, wisdom, and power; and further, of the Unity16 of that power. But, to our finite perceptions, it does not everywhere present evidences of love, mercy, and parental17 care. Not because they may not exist universally, but because our faculties18 do not allow us to connect these ideas with any but "sentient19 beings."
This alone renders physiology one of the most elevating of all human studies—most general in its application—most comprehensive in the attributes it unfolds to us, and therefore most refining to our moral nature.
Although, therefore, we would claim the special theological evidences of physiology, as the distinguishing excellence20 of this science, it is not less commanding as regard the evidences which it affords in common with other parts of the Creation.
In animals, we see not less indications of design, wisdom, power, and beauty, than elsewhere; but we also see a provision for their wants and comforts, of such a kind as leaves no room for doubting that both have been the objects of design. We need not here go into the multiplied proofs of this proposition. A priori, then, it would seem very unlikely that a mode of investigating the functions of animals would be productive, which begins by ignoring one of their most striking relations.
This, too, at once suggests the moral question, Is it right? There is no necessity, for our present purpose, to moot21 that question. We have, over and over again, challenged investigation; but the case is too clear to admit of discussion. Again, although we humbly submit that the moral bearing of philosophical questions must always be a legitimate22 subject of inquiry23, yet it is inexpedient to introduce that question where it is not101 required. The questions whether the progress of physiology has been accelerated by experiments on living animals, or whether the treatment of diseases has been improved by that mode of inquiry, or whether it has tended to mislead people into erroneous and mischievous24 views, are all things that admit of proof entirely25 independent of moral considerations. Now we should be sorry to appear to undervalue that which we most highly prize, or to represent that to be irrelevant26 which is, in all subjects, the great consideration; but it is wise to take the ground chosen by those who argue in support of a fallacy; not that which they would ignore, or regard as disputable.
As we have already observed, we think it demonstrable that experiments on living animals, involving cruelty, have been entirely unproductive, whilst they have tended to mislead more than any other mode of investigation whatever. Many years since, we corrected some very extraordinary mis-statements in regard to the experiments of Orfila, Sir Charles Bell, and others, which could only be accounted for by a want of attention to the works from which they were selected; for it is curious to observe that (though different in kind) the most conclusive2 evidence of the erroneous value attributed to the experiments is furnished by the distinguished27 authors themselves.
Orfila wished to know what would be the effect of various poisons on the animal economy. He therefore set to work as follows:—He opened the gullet of a living animal, put in the poison, and then tied the tube; and this to ascertain28 how the stomach dealt with substances of this kind taken into that organ. Now there have been, unfortunately, too many instances afforded, by accidents and by suicides, of these very things in the human subject; presenting us with a series of facts, deplorable enough, it is true, but which, regarded merely as grounds of philosophical inquiry, are comparatively free from objection; whilst the experiments made by Orfila on his tortured animals are obviously loaded with all the elements of fallacy. It is surely not necessary to urge, as one of these, so serious a preliminary as placing a ligature on the gullet. We say nothing of the horrible cries that Orfila describes these animals as uttering; but surely, if the102 object had been to interfere29 with and obscure the processes of nature by every conceivable ingenuity30, one could not have imagined any conditions better calculated for this purpose.
Sir Charles Bell was a physiologist11 who distinguished himself by a really important discovery; and it has been cited as an example of the successful application of the mode of inquiry in question. This is entirely an error. Whoever will read his book, will at once perceive the truth of that which he himself judiciously31 observes; namely, that physiology is much more a science of observation than experiment. As to the influence of experiments on animals, in his own discoveries, we have the best possible authority for denying it; viz. Sir Charles Bell himself. He states very clearly the object with which he was reluctantly induced to make some experiments. They had, in fact, nothing to do with his discovery. They were made in reluctant concession32 to the slowly-paced perceptions of others.
This he had the manliness33 to acknowledge, and the benevolence34 to regret. In short, examine what series of such experiments we may, we always find them either wholly unproductive, or, if they appear to prove anything of value, it is always something that is much more logically deducible from sources altogether unobjectionable. But if this be so, is there no mischief35 in unproductive modes of inquiry? Again—putting aside the brutalizing tendency of such practices as part of the moral question—Is life so long? Is Science so easy? Is Physiology, and especially the deplorably halt condition of Medical Science, in such a state that we can afford to waste time in vicious modes of inquiry? We think not. Is there nothing mischievous in our endeavour to obtain by the evidence of sense (the eye) that insight into nature which Lord Bacon has so emphatically warned us is the office of higher—in fact, of our intellectual—perceptions? If we are not allowed to indulge in feelings of disgust and abhorrence36 at all that is revolting to common sense, and our best and kindliest sentiments, can we read, without distrust, of experiments which so disgust by their nature that we know not how to describe them; or which are so revolting, from their cruelty, that the mind recoils37 from the contemplation of them? Is it possible103 to read many of the experiments of Spallanzani24, without feeling the same disgust that Abernethy used to express in regard to them; or to read of opening animals alive, dividing them with instruments, breaking their bones, or running red-hot wires into their cavities, without feeling (if, indeed, any thing better is to be regarded as merely "mawkish38 sentimentality") that at least valuable time has been wasted in pursuits which have been brutalizing and unproductive?
In a review of a Biography of Sir Astley Cooper, in the "Quarterly," an experiment there described was characterized by the writer as "Hellish." We have no desire whatever to use unnecessarily strong terms; nor do we think that the one above mentioned was too strong for the case to which it referred; but we think that this extremely fallacious mode of investigation will be most quickly abandoned, by meeting fairly and in a mild and moderate spirit any allegations in its favour. Dr. Hull39, of Norwich, and several other eminent40 persons, have expressed their dissent41 from this mode of inquiry.
Sir Isaac Newton considered cruelty to animals a violation42 of Christian43 charity25.
For our part, we have several times stated our willingness to discuss any class of experiments which may be selected; for, although we may not express ourselves so well as a late writer in the "Quarterly," yet to our minds heaven and hell do not present an idea of greater contrast than that afforded by the notion—that laws which govern the whole animal kingdom, and which present, at every moment, accumulating evidences of goodness and mercy, should be auspiciously44 sought, much less have their nature and relations developed, by torture of those very objects for whom such benevolent45 provisions have been designed. We have paid some attention to this subject; and it is very curious to remark, that observations or experiments, when they cease to be cruel, become instructive.
Indeed, if we reflect for a moment, we shall see that it must104 be so. If we desire to know the actual nature of any living being, it must be as if we were ourselves unseen—that is, that the animal may be in a perfectly46 undisturbed condition. The moment we lose this, elements of interference immediately arise and fog our reasoning; and the more refined the inquiry, the more the avoidance of disturbance47 becomes essential: in fact, the utmost success in obtaining the conditions philosophically48 necessary, depends on maintaining as nearly as possible the natural condition—that is, the comfort of the animal; so that the conditions necessary on philosophical grounds, and those which we regard as still more important after all, coincide.
In every path of life, there are unpleasant duties; and it might have happened that the functions of animals could only have been investigated by the means we would repudiate49: but the simple truth is, that it is demonstrably otherwise.
Abernethy had a decided50 objection to experiments involving cruelty. He never made any himself that could fairly be so called; and he never alludes51 to the subject without some remark tending to show his disapproval52 of them. Nor is it, in our view, any disparagement53 that his benevolent feelings were largely influential54 in governing his opinions on this subject. He began his researches, with the ability and inclination55 to investigate Life under every phase, at a time when no one had begun, so far as we know, to question this mode of investigation. But, whilst he left no other untried, he only recognized experimenting on living animals so far as to show that his benevolence could be sufficiently56 discriminative57 to select experiments where the existence of suffering was doubtful, and that the doubt alone was sufficient to induce him to abandon the pursuit.
We are sorry to dismiss a subject of so great importance, both in a moral and physiological58 point of view, with what we feel to be so meagre a discussion. But it would require more than our whole space to examine the many thousand torturing experiments, and expose the uselessness and fallacies which they exemplify. We have elsewhere discussed the subject somewhat more at large26:105 here we have only the opportunity of just touching59 on it. The greatest respect we can pay the memory of a great man, is to apply carefully any principles which he may have left sufficiently matured for practical purposes; and so to treat those of which he may have only given us hints, or elementary suggestions27, as shall most searchingly examine their nature and claims to further development and cultivation60. If every opportunity is not sufficient to do this in full, we must comfort ourselves with the hope that, where there is not ability to produce conviction, there may appear sincerity61 of purpose sufficient to suggest what is even more valuable, "patient inquiry."
This is a duty we owe to every subject on which we venture to form any opinion, either in the study or the practice of our profession; and we have the utmost confidence that the scientific investigation and the moral argument will be found to coincide.
"Heaven's attribute is universal care,
And man's prerogative62 to rule, but spare."
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1
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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lamentable
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| adj.令人惋惜的，悔恨的 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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alluring
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| adj.吸引人的，迷人的 | |
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humbly
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| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
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physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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physiologist
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| n.生理学家 | |
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physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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parental
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| adj.父母的；父的；母的 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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sentient
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| adj.有知觉的，知悉的；adv.有感觉能力地 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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moot
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| v.提出；adj.未决议的；n.大会；辩论会 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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mischievous
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| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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irrelevant
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| adj.不恰当的，无关系的，不相干的 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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judiciously
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| adv.明断地，明智而审慎地 | |
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concession
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| n.让步，妥协；特许(权) | |
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manliness
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| 刚毅 | |
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benevolence
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| n.慈悲，捐助 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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abhorrence
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| n.憎恶；可憎恶的事 | |
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recoils
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| n.（尤指枪炮的）反冲，后坐力( recoil的名词复数 )v.畏缩( recoil的第三人称单数 )；退缩；报应；返回 | |
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mawkish
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| adj.多愁善感的的；无味的 | |
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hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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dissent
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| n./v.不同意，持异议 | |
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violation
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| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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auspiciously
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| adv.吉利； 繁荣昌盛； 前途顺利； 吉祥 | |
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benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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philosophically
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| adv.哲学上；富有哲理性地；贤明地；冷静地 | |
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repudiate
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| v.拒绝，拒付，拒绝履行 | |
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50
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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51
alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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disapproval
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| n.反对，不赞成 | |
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disparagement
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| n.轻视，轻蔑 | |
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influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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discriminative
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| 有判别力 | |
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physiological
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| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
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touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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60
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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61
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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prerogative
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| n.特权 | |
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