When what is taught agrees with Nature's laws."
Dryden's Relig. Laici.
PREFATORY REMARKS.
In endeavouring to give some idea of Abernethy's manner in more sustained compositions, we have made some selections from the Lectures he delivered at the College of Surgeons. Without any pretensions1 to a critically faultless style, there always seemed to us to be a peculiar2 simplicity3, combined with a broad and comprehensive range of thought. Sometimes, too, he has almost a "curiosa felicitas" in the tone of his expressions; though this was more remarkable4, we think, when he felt more free; that is, in his unrivalled teaching at the Hospital, of which we shall endeavour to give a more particular account. As we have before remarked, it is impossible to do full justice to Abernethy, unless we were to publish his works, with a running commentary; and we fear that in the selections we offer we have incurred6 a responsibility which we shall not properly fulfil. To convey the full, the suggestive merit of even some of the following passages, it would be necessary to state carefully the relation they bear to the state of science, both chemical and physiological8, at the time they were written, and the present.
The interest of the Lectures is so evenly distributed through the whole, that selection is very difficult; and being obliged to consider our limits, we have, in the absence of a better guide, selected the passages at random9, as suggested by our own impressions of them. We therefore can only earnestly recommend the perusal10 of the Lectures themselves, as equally entertaining and instructive to the general as well as the professional reader. The varied11 expression and manner, and his fine intellectual countenance12, by which he imparted so much interest to his delivery on every subject he touched, will be considered in connection with his success in the art of lecturing, to which these somewhat formal specimens13 may serve as an introduction.
198
THE APPARENT UNIVERSAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOME POWERFUL
FORCE LIKE ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM14, ETC.
"When, therefore, we perceive in the universe at large a cause of rapid and powerful motions of masses of inert15 matter, may we not naturally conclude that the inert molecules16 of vegetable and animal matter may be made to move in a similar manner by a similar cause?"
REPUDIATION17 OF AN OFTEN-ALLEGED18 OPINION.
"It is not meant that electricity is life. There are strong analogies between electricity and magnetism; and yet I do not know that any one has been hardy19 enough to assert their absolute identity40. I only mean to prove that Mr. Hunter's theory is verifiable, by showing that a subtile substance of a quickly, powerfully mobile nature seems to pervade20 everything, and appears to be the life of the world; and therefore it is probable that a similar substance pervades21 organized bodies, and produces similar effects in them.
"The opinions which, in former times, were a justifiable22 hypothesis, seem to me now to be converted into a rational theory41."
IN RELATION TO MICROSCOPIC23 OBSERVATION.
"This general and imperfect sketch24 of the anatomy25 of the nervous system relates only to what may be discovered by our unassisted sight. If by means of the microscope we endeavour199 to observe the ultimate nervous fibres, persons in general are as much at a loss as when, by the same means, they attempt to trace the ultimate muscular fibres42."
ILLUSTRATION, OF MOTION NOT NECESSARILY IMPLYING SENSATION.
"Assuredly, motion does not necessarily imply sensation; it takes place where no one ever yet imagined there could be sensation. If I put on the table a basin containing a saturated26 solution of salt, and threw into it a single crystal, the act of crystallization would begin from the point touched, and rapidly and regularly pervade the liquor till it assumed a solid form. Yet I know I should incur5 your ridicule27 if I suggested the idea that the stimulus28 of salt had primarily excited the action, or that its extension was the effect of continuous sympathy. If, also, I threw a spark amongst gunpowder29; what would you think, were I to represent the explosion as a struggle resentful of injury, or the noise as the clamorous30 expression of pain43?"
DIFFERENT NERVOUS SYSTEMS VARIOUSLY AFFECTED31 BY SIMILAR
IMPRESSIONS.
"Thus the odour of a cat, or the effluvia of mutton, the one imperceptible, the other grateful to the generality of persons, has caused individuals to fall on the ground as though bereaved32 of life, or to have their whole frame agitated33 by convulsions. Substances which induce disease in one person or animal, do not induce disease in others44."
200
IMPORTANCE OF OPINIONS.
"Thinking being inevitable34, we ought, as I said, to be solicitous35 to think correctly. Opinions are equally the natural result of thought, and the cause of conduct. If errors of thought terminated in opinions, they would be of less consequence; but a slight deviation36 from the line of rectitude in thought may lead to a most distant and disastrous37 aberration38 from that line in action. I own I cannot readily believe any one who tells me he has formed no opinion on subjects which must have engaged and interested his attention. Persons both of sceptical and credulous39 characters form opinions, and we have in general some principal opinion, to which we connect the rest, and to which we make them subservient40; and this has a great influence on all our conduct. Doubt and uncertainty41 are so fatiguing42 to the human mind, by keeping it in continual action, that it will and must rest somewhere; and if so, our inquiry43 ought to be where it may rest most securely and comfortably to itself, and with most advantage to others.
"In the uncertainty of opinions, wisdom would counsel us to adopt those which have a tendency to produce beneficial actions."
INDEPENDENCE OF MIND ON LIFE AS ARISING OUT OF THE IDEA
THAT LIFE WAS SUPERADDED TO ORGANIZATION—HIS DISPOSITION44
TO ALLEGORY.
"If I may be allowed to express myself allegorically with regard to our intellectual operations, I would say that the mind chooses for itself some little spot or district, where it erects45 a dwelling46, which it furnishes and decorates with the various materials it collects. Of many apartments contained in it, there is one to which it is most partial, where it chiefly reposes47, and where it sometimes indulges its visionary fancies. At the same201 time, it employs itself in cultivating the surrounding grounds, raising little articles for intellectual traffic with its neighbours, or perhaps some produce worthy48 to be deposited amongst the general stores of human knowledge. Thus my mind rests at peace in thinking on the subject of life, as it has been taught by Mr. Hunter; and I am visionary enough to imagine that if these opinions should become so established as to be generally admitted by philosophers, that if they once saw reason to believe that life was something of an invisible and active nature superadded to organization, they would then see equal reason to believe that mind might be superadded to life, as life is to structure. They would then, indeed, still further perceive how mind and matter might reciprocally operate on each other by means of an intervening substance. Thus, even, would physiological researches enforce the belief which I say is natural to man: that, in addition to his bodily frame, he possesses a sensitive, intelligent, and independent mind—an opinion which tends in an eminent49 degree to produce virtuous50, honourable51, and useful actions45."
ATTRACTIONS OF PhYSIOLOGY52—THE NECESSITY OF EXAMINING
BOTH HEALTH AND DISEASE A VERY IMPORTANT POINT JUST
NOW, AS TESTING THE VALIDITY OF CERTAIN VIEWS OF LIEBIG
AND OTHERS.
"No study can surely be so interesting as Physiology. Whilst other sciences carry us abroad in search of objects, in this we are engaged at home, and on concerns highly important to us, in inquiring into the means by which 'we live, and move, and have our being.' To those, however, engaged in the practice of Medicine, the study of Physiology is indispensable; for it is evident that the nature of the disordered actions of parts or organs can never be understood or judiciously54 counteracted,202 unless the nature of their healthy actions be previously56 known.
"The study of Physiology, however, not only requires that we should investigate the nature of the various vital processes carried on in our own bodies, but also that we should compare them with similar processes in all the varieties of living beings; not only that we should consider them in a state of natural and healthy action, but also under all the varying circumstances of disorder53 and disease. Few indeed have studied Physiology thus extensively, and none in an equal degree with Mr. Hunter. Whoever attentively57 peruses58 his writings, must, I think, perceive that he draws his crowds of facts from such different and remote sources, as to make it extremely difficult to assemble and arrange them46."
OF DISORDER AND DISEASE.
"Disorder, which is the effect of faulty actions of nerves, induces disease, which is the consequence of faulty actions of the vessels59. There are some who find it difficult to understand how similar swellings or ulcers60 may form in various parts of the body in consequence of general nervous disorder, and are all curable by appeasing61 and removing such general disorder. The fact is indisputable. Such persons are not so much surprised that general nervous disorder should produce local effects in the nervous and muscular systems; yet they cannot so well understand how it should locally affect the vascular62 system. To me there appears nothing wonderful in such events; for the local affection is primarily nervous, and the vascular actions are consequent. Yet it must indeed be granted that there may be other circumstances leading to the peculiarities63 of local diseases, with which, at present, we are unacquainted. Disorder excites to disease, and when important organs become in a degree diseased,203 they will still perform their functions moderately well, if disorder be relieved, which ought to be the Alpha and Omega of medical attention47."
As we have seen, in the early part of our narrative64, he was one of the first to insist on the importance of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, and, as we shall have to relate, most active in securing what has proved so greatly influential65 to its progress in this country (the appointment of Professor Owen). Yet he modestly ignores any positive pretensions which might be imputed66 to him from his endeavour to illustrate67 a Museum dealing68 so largely with Comparative Anatomy.
"Gratitude69 to the former of the Museum, and also to the donors70 to it, equally demand that its value and excellency should be publicly acknowledged and displayed, which consideration has goaded71 me on to undertake and imperfectly execute a task for which I feel myself not properly qualified72."
Here follows what is very candid73 in Abernethy, and honourable to Mr. Clift, who had very many debtors74 who were less communicative.
"I cordially acknowledge that I have little acquaintance with the subject, except what I derived76 from looking over the preparations in the Museum, from reading Professor Cuvier's Lectures, and from the frank and friendly communications of our204 highly praiseworthy conservator, Mr. Clift. Permit me to say, gentlemen, though many know it already, that Mr. Clift resided with Mr. Hunter, and was taught by him to exhibit anatomical facts in preparations,—that he does credit to his excellent instructor,—that he feels the same interest and zeal77 that his patron did for the improvement of this department of science,—and that he possesses the same candour and simplicity of character48."
OF DEEP AND SUPERFICIAL THINKING.
"I now beg leave to add that there are many who think clearly, who do not think deeply; and they have greatly the advantage in expressing themselves, for their thoughts are generally simple and easy of apprehension78. Opinions immediately deduced from any series or assemblage of facts may be called primary opinions, and they become types and representatives of the facts from which they are formed, and, like the facts themselves, admit of assortment79, comparison, and inference; so that from them we deduce ulterior opinions, till at length, by a kind of intellectual calculation, we obtain some general total, which in like manner becomes the representative and co-efficient of all our knowledge, with relation to the subject examined and considered.
"In proportion to the pains we have taken in this algebraical process of the mind, and our assurance of its correctness, so do we contemplate80 the conclusion or consummation of our labours with satisfaction49."
CHARACTERISTIC OF HIS INCLINATION81 TO THE LAW.
"Gentlemen (of the jury), I trust I can prove to your perfect conviction, by ample and incontrovertible evidence, that my205 client (John Hunter) died seized and possessed82 of very considerable literary property, the hard-earned gainings of great talent and unparalleled industry. It is not, however, for the property that I plead; because already that is secured; it is fenced in; land-marks are set up; it is registered in public documents. I plead only for the restitution83 of a great and accumulated income of reputation derivable84 from that property, which, I trust, you will perceive to be justly due, and will consequently award to my client, and his country50."
OF MR. HUNTER—PROGRESS OF HIS MIND, ETC.
"Believing that no man will labour in the strenuous85 and unremitting manner that Mr. Hunter did, and to the detriment86 of his own private interest, without some strong incentive87; I have supposed that at an early period he conceived those notions of life which were confirmed by his future inquiries88 and experiments. He began his observations on the incubated egg, in the year 1755, which must either have suggested or corroborated89 all his opinions with regard to the cause of the vital phenomena90. He perceived that, however different in form and faculty91, every creature was nevertheless allied92 to himself, because it was a living being; and therefore he became solicitous to inquire how the vital processes were carried on in all the varieties of animal and even vegetable existence."
OF GENIUS AND JUDGMENT93.
"In the progress of science, genius with light and airy steps often far precedes judgment, which proceeds slowly, and either finds or forms a road along which all may proceed with facility206 and security; but the direction of the course of judgment is often suggested, and its actions are excited and accelerated, by the invocations of preceding genius51."
REITERATION94 OF THE DENIAL THAT HE IDENTIFIED LIFE WITH
ELECTRICITY.
"As Sir H. Davy's experiments fully7 prove that electricity may be superadded to, and that it enters into, the composition of all those substances we call matter, I felt satisfied with the establishment of the philosophy of Mr. Hunter's views, nor thought it necessary to proceed further, but merely added: 'It is not meant to be affirmed that electricity is life.' I only mean to argue in favour of Mr. Hunter's theory, by showing that a subtile substance of a quickly and powerfully mobile nature seems to pervade everything, and appears to be the life of the world; and that therefore it is probable a similar substance pervades organized bodies, and is the life of these bodies. I am concerned, yet obliged, to detain you by this recapitulation, because my meaning has been either misunderstood or misrepresented52."
CHEMISTRY OF LIFE.
"He (Mr. Hunter) told us that life was a great chemist, and, even in a seemingly quiescent96 state, had the power of resisting the operations of external chemical agency, and thereby97 preventing the decomposition98 of those bodies in which it resided. Thus seeds may lie buried far beneath the surface of the earth for a great length of time without decaying, but being thrown up, they vegetate99. Mr. Hunter showed us that this207 chemist, 'Life,' had the power of regulating the temperature of the substances in which it resides53."
INTERESTING; ALSO SIGNIFICANT IN REGARD TO WHAT ARE PROBABLY
THE REAL SOURCES OF ANIMAL HEAT, AND IN RELATION
TO THE LUNGS, WHICH WE HAVE CONTENDED ARE REFRIGERATING
AND NOT HEATING ORGANS.
"The progress of science since Mr. Hunter's time has wonderfully manifested that the beam, when dissected100 by a prism, is not only separable into seven calorific rays of different refrangibility, producing the iridescent101 spectrum102, but also into calorific rays refracted in the greatest degree or intensity103 beyond the red colour, and into rays not calorific, refracted in like manner, to the opposite side of the spectrum beyond the violet colour; and that the calorific and uncalorific rays produce effects similar to those occasioned by the two kinds of electricity; and thus afforded additional reasons for believing that subtile, mobile substances do enter into the composition of all those bodies which the sun illumines, or its beams can penetrate104.
"Late observations induce the belief that even light may be incorporated in a latent state with animal substances and afterwards elicited105 by a kind of spontaneous separation by vital actions, or by causes that seem to act mechanically on the substance in which it inheres. All the late discoveries in science seem to realize the speculations106 of ancient philosophers, and show that all the changes and motions which occur in surrounding bodies, as well as those in which we live, are the effect of subtile and invisible principles existing in them, or acting107 on them. Mr. Ellis, who, with such great industry and intelligence, has collated108 all the scattered109 evidences relative to the production of heat in living bodies, and added so much to the collected knowledge, seems to think that all the variations of208 temperature in them may be accounted for by known chemical processes.
"Here, however, I must observe, that Mr. Hunter's opinion of life having the power of regulating temperature was deduced, not only from his own experiments, related in the 'Philosophical110 Transactions,' but also from observing, that, in certain affections of the stomach, the heat of the body is subject to great vicissitudes111, whilst respiration112 and circulation remain unaltered; and also that parts of the body are subject to similar variations, which appear inexplicable113 upon any other supposition than that of local nervous excitement, or torpor114, or some similar affections of the vital powers of the part which undergoes such transitions54."
ALLEGED TENDENCIES OF A BELIEF IN THE INDEPENDENT
NATURE OF MIND.
"It is equally apparent that the belief of the distinct and independent nature of mind incites116 us to act rightly from principle; to relieve distress117, to repel118 aggression119, and defend those who are incapable120 of protecting themselves; to practise and extol121 whatever is virtuous, excellent, and honourable; to shun122 and condemn123 whatever is vicious and base, regardless also of our own personal feelings and interests when put in competition with our duty55."
OF PHRENOLOGY.
"There is nothing in the assertions of Drs. Gall124 and Spurzheim contradictory125 to the results of general observation and experience. It is admitted that the superior intellectual209 faculties126 can and ought to control the inferior propensities127. It is admitted that we possess organs, which, nevertheless, may be inactive from general torpor or want of education. General observation and experience proclaim that susceptibility is the chief incentive to action, that it is the source of genius; and that the character of the man greatly depends on his education and habits. We educate our faculties; what is at first accomplished128 with difficulty, by repetition is easily performed, and becomes more perfect and established by habit. Trains of perceptions and thoughts also become firmly concentrated, and occur in succession. Even our feelings undergo the same kind of education and establishment. Casual feelings of goodwill129 by repetition strengthen and produce lasting130 friendships; whilst trivial sensations of disgust, in like manner, may occasion inveterate131 hatred132."
ON THE SAME.
"Should the result of our general inquiries, or attention to the subjects proposed to us by Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, induce us to believe that the peculiarities of our feelings and faculties were the effects of variety of excitement, transmitted through a diversity of organization, they would tend to produce mutual133 forbearance and toleration. We should perceive how nearly impossible it must be that any persons should think and feel exactly alike upon any subject. We should not arrogantly134 pride ourselves on our own virtue135 and knowledge, nor condemn the errors and weakness of others, since they may depend upon causes which we can neither produce nor readily counteract55. The path of virtue is plain and direct, and its object distinctly before us; so that no one can miss either, who has resolution enough never to lose sight of them, by adverting136 to advantages and allurements137 with which he may be presented on the one hand, or the menacings with which he may be assailed138 on the other. Yet no one, judging from his own feelings and powers, can be210 aware of the kind and degree of temptation or terror, or the seeming incapacity to resist them, which may have induced others to deviate139. Now, though from the foregoing considerations I am pleased with the speculations of Drs. Gall and Spurzheim, I am quite incompetent140 to give any opinion as to the probability of what they have suggested; because I see no mode by which we can with propriety141 admit or reject their assertions, except by pursuing the same course of investigations142 which they themselves have followed; a task of great labour and difficulty, and one which, for various reasons, I should feel great repugnance143 to undertake56."
Abernethy used to like very well to talk with Spurzheim, who resided for some time in this country. One day, Abernethy, half-seriously, half-humorously said to Spurzheim: "Well, Doctor, where do you place the organ of common sense?" Spurzheim's reply certainly sustained the coincidence of phrenological deductions144 with those of experience. "There is no organ," said he, "for common sense, but it depends on the equilibrium145 of the other organs."
THEOLOGICAL APPLICATION OF ANATOMICAL FACTS.
"Therefore, from this least interesting part of anatomy, we derive75 the strongest conviction of there being design and contrivance in the construction of animals. Equal evidences of design and contrivance and of adaptation of means to ends may be observed in the construction of the framework, as I may call it, of other animals, as in that of man, which subject seems to me very happily displayed in Professor Cuvier's Lectures57.
"It was, however, the comparing the mechanism146 of the hand211 and foot that led Galen, who they say was a sceptic in his youth, to the public declaration of his opinion that intelligence must have operated in ordaining147 the laws by which living beings are constructed. That Galen was a man of a very superior intellect could readily be proved, were it necessary. I have often known the passage I allude148 to made a subject of reference, but not of quotation149, and therefore I recite it on the present occasion, and particularly because it shows that Galen was not in the least degree tinctured with superstition150. 'In explaining these things,' he says, 'I esteem151 myself as composing a solemn hymn152 to the great Architect of our bodily frame, in which I think there is more true piety153 than in sacrificing whole hecatombs of oxen, or in burning the most costly154 perfumes; for, first, I endeavour from His works to know Him myself, and afterwards by the same means to show Him to others, to inform them how great is His wisdom, goodness, and power58.'"
DISTINCTIVE155 CHARACTER OF LIVING BODIES.
"Those bodies which we call living are chiefly characterized by their powers of converting surrounding substances into their own nature, of building up the structure of their own bodies, and repairing the injuries they may accidentally sustain59."
IN REPUDIATION OF CRUELTY AND EXPERIMENTS ON ANIMALS.
Very important in our view. The objection was very new at that time, and has made very little way yet. We have already referred to this subject. Considering the period of these Lectures (nearly forty years ago), Abernethy's objections,212 though cautious, are very sound, and, for him, very positive. We know that he felt still more strongly.
"Mr. Hunter, whom I should not have believed to be very scrupulous156 about inflicting157 sufferings upon animals, nevertheless censures158 Spalanzani for the unmeaning repetition of similar experiments. Having resolved publicly to express my own opinion with respect to this subject, I choose the present opportunity to do it, because I believe Spalanzani to have been one of those who have tortured and destroyed animals in vain. I do not perceive that in the two principal subjects which he sought to elucidate159, he has added any important fact to our stock of knowledge; besides, some of his experiments are of a nature that a good man would have blushed to think of, and a wise man ashamed to publish, for they prove no fact requiring to be proved, and only show that the aforesaid Abbé was a filthy-minded fellow."
ON THE SAME.
"The design of experiments is to interrogate160 nature; and surely the inquirer ought to make himself acquainted with the language of nature, and take care to propose pertinent161 questions. He ought further to consider the probable kind of replies that may be made to his inquiries, and the inferences that may be warranted in drawing from different responses, so as to be able to determine whether, by the commission of cruelty, he is likely to obtain adequate instruction. Indeed, before we make experiments on sensitive beings, we ought further to consider whether the information we seek may not be attainable162 by other means. I am aware of the advantages which have been derived from such experiments when made by persons of talent, and who have properly prepared themselves; but I know that these experiments tend to harden the feelings which often lead to the inconsiderate performance of them.
"Surely we should endeavour to foster, and not stifle163, benevolence,213 the best sentiment of our nature, that which is productive of the greatest gratification both to its possessor and to others. Considering the professors in this place as the organs of the Court of the College, addressing its members, I feel that I act as becomes a senior of this institution, whilst admitting the propriety of the practice under the foregoing restrictions164, I, at the same time, express an earnest hope that the character of an English surgeon may never be tarnished165 by the commission of inconsiderate or unnecessary cruelty60."
A VERY EARLY EXCELLENCE166 OF ABERNETHY: EXCEEDINGLY NECESSARY
AT ONE TIME IN RELATION TO THE ERRONEOUS
NOTIONS ON WHICH ANATOMICAL INVESTIGATIONS WERE CONDUCTED;
ADVANCING SCIENCE HAS FULLY CONFIRMED THE
JUSTICE AND GOOD SENSE OF HIS REMARKS.
"To me, however, who confide167 more in the eye of reason than in that of sense, and would rather form opinions from analogy than from the imperfect evidence of sight, it seems too hasty an inference to conclude that, in the minute animals, there are no vessels nor other organization because we cannot see them, or that polypes are actually devoid168 of vessels, and merely of the structure described, because we can discern no other. Were it, however, really so, such facts would then only show with how little and with what various organization life could accomplish its principal functions of assimilation, formation, and multiplication169. Who has seen the multitudinous distribution of absorbing vessels, and all the other organization, which doubtless exists in the vitreous humour of the eye, than which no glass ever appeared more transparent170 or more seemingly inorganic61? How strange is it that anatomists, above all other members of the community of science, should hesitate to admit the existence of what they cannot discern, since they, more214 than all the rest, have such constant assurance of the imperfection and fallibility of sight62?"
REITERATION OF AN IMPORTANT AXIOM, QUITE NECESSARY AT
THIS TIME TO THE CHEMICAL PHYSIOLOGISTS171.
"Our physiological theories should be adequate to account for all the vital phenomena both in health and disorder, or they can never be maintained as good theories63."
OF RESPIRATION. CAUTIOUS REASONING. HAD ALL REASONED
THUS, WE MIGHT HAVE ESCAPED MUCH UNSOUND THEORIZING
ON THIS IMPORTANT PROCESS.
"Chemists have considered the change as contributory to the production of animal heat, which opinion may, indeed, be true, though the manner in which it produces such an effect has not, as yet, been explained. Mr. Hunter, who believed that life had the power of regulating temperature, independently of respiration, says nothing of that process as directly contributing to such an effect. He says: 'Breathing seems to render life to the blood, and the blood conveys it to every part of the body,' yet he believes the blood derives172 its vitality173 also from the food. I am at a loss to know what chemists now think respecting heat, whether they consider it to be a distinct species of matter, or mere95 motion and vibration174. Among the curious revolutions which this age has produced, those of chemical opinions have a fair claim to distinction. To show which, I may add, that a lady64, on her first marriage, was wedded175 to that scientific champion who first overthrew176 phlogiston, and215 established, in its stead, the empire of caloric; and after his decease, on her second nuptials177, was united to the man who vainly supposed he had subverted178 the rule of caloric and restored the ancient but long-banished dynasty of motion and vibration. In this state of perplexity, I cannot, with prudence179 or probable security, advance one step further than Mr. Hunter has led me. I must believe respiration to be essential to life, and that life has the power, by its actions, of maintaining and regulating temperature65."
CHARACTERISTIC, BOTH AS TO ILLUSTRATION AND MORAL
BEARING.
"Those of the medical profession must readily accord with the remark of Shakspeare, that such affections (disturbed states of the nervous system) which may well indeed be called 'master passions,' sway us to their mood in what we like or loathe180. For we well know that our patients and ourselves, from disturbance181 of the nervous functions of the digestive organs, producing such affections of the brain, may become irritable182, petulant183, and violent about trifles, or oppressed, morose184, and desponding. Permit me, however, to add that those of the medical profession must be equally apprized that when the functions of the mind are not disturbed by such affections, it displays great energy of thought, and evidence of established character, even in death. Have we not lately heard that the last words of Nelson were: 'Tell Collingwood to bring the fleet to an anchor?' Shakspeare has also represented Mercutio continuing to jest, though he was mortally wounded; the expiring Hotspur thinking of nothing but honour, and the dying Falstaff cracking his jokes on Bardolph's nose. I request you to excuse this digression, which I have been induced to make, from perceiving that, if such facts were duly attended to, they would216 prompt us to a more liberal allowance for each other's conduct, under certain circumstances, than we are accustomed to do; and also incite115 us to the more active and constant performance of the great business of human life—the education of the mind; for, according to its knowledge and dispositions185, do we possess the ability of contributing to our own welfare and comfort, and that of others."
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pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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peculiar
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simplicity
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remarkable
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incur
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incurred
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fully
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physiological
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random
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perusal
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varied
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countenance
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specimens
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magnetism
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inert
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molecules
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repudiation
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| n.拒绝；否认；断绝关系；抛弃 | |
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18
alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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19
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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20
pervade
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| v.弥漫，遍及，充满，渗透，漫延 | |
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21
pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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22
justifiable
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| adj.有理由的，无可非议的 | |
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23
microscopic
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| adj.微小的，细微的，极小的，显微的 | |
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24
sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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25
anatomy
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| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
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26
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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27
ridicule
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| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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28
stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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29
gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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30
clamorous
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| adj.吵闹的，喧哗的 | |
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31
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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32
bereaved
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| adj.刚刚丧失亲人的v.使失去（希望、生命等）( bereave的过去式和过去分词)；（尤指死亡）使丧失（亲人、朋友等）；使孤寂；抢走（财物） | |
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33
agitated
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| adj.被鼓动的，不安的 | |
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34
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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35
solicitous
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| adj.热切的，挂念的 | |
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36
deviation
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| n.背离，偏离；偏差，偏向；离题 | |
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37
disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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38
aberration
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| n.离开正路，脱离常规，色差 | |
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39
credulous
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| adj.轻信的，易信的 | |
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40
subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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41
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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42
fatiguing
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| a.使人劳累的 | |
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43
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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44
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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45
erects
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| v.使直立，竖起( erect的第三人称单数 )；建立 | |
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46
dwelling
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| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
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47
reposes
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的第三人称单数 ) | |
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48
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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49
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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50
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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51
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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52
physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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53
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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54
judiciously
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|
| adv.明断地，明智而审慎地 | |
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55
counteract
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|
| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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56
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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57
attentively
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| adv.聚精会神地；周到地；谛；凝神 | |
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58
peruses
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| v.读（某篇文字）( peruse的第三人称单数 )；（尤指）细阅；审阅；匆匆读或心不在焉地浏览（某篇文字） | |
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59
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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60
ulcers
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| n.溃疡( ulcer的名词复数 )；腐烂物；道德败坏；腐败 | |
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61
appeasing
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的现在分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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62
vascular
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| adj.血管的，脉管的 | |
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63
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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64
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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65
influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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66
imputed
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| v.把（错误等）归咎于( impute的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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67
illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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68
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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69
gratitude
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|
| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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70
donors
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|
| n.捐赠者( donor的名词复数 )；献血者；捐血者；器官捐献者 | |
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71
goaded
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|
| v.刺激( goad的过去式和过去分词 )；激励；（用尖棒）驱赶；驱使（或怂恿、刺激）某人 | |
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72
qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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73
candid
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|
| adj.公正的，正直的；坦率的 | |
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74
debtors
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|
| n.债务人，借方( debtor的名词复数 ) | |
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75
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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76
derived
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|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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77
zeal
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|
| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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78
apprehension
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|
| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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79
assortment
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|
| n.分类，各色俱备之物，聚集 | |
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80
contemplate
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|
| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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81
inclination
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|
| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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82
possessed
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|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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83
restitution
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|
| n.赔偿；恢复原状 | |
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84
derivable
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|
| adj.可引出的，可推论的，可诱导的 | |
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85
strenuous
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|
| adj.奋发的，使劲的；紧张的；热烈的，狂热的 | |
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86
detriment
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|
| n.损害；损害物，造成损害的根源 | |
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87
incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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88
inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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89
corroborated
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|
| v.证实，支持（某种说法、信仰、理论等）( corroborate的过去式 ) | |
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90
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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91
faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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92
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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93
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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94
reiteration
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|
| n. 重覆, 反覆, 重说 | |
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95
mere
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|
| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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96
quiescent
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|
| adj.静止的，不活动的，寂静的 | |
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97
thereby
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|
| adv.因此，从而 | |
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98
decomposition
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|
| n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃 | |
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99
vegetate
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| v.无所事事地过活 | |
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100
dissected
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|
| adj.切开的，分割的，（叶子）多裂的v.解剖（动物等）( dissect的过去式和过去分词 )；仔细分析或研究 | |
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101
iridescent
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|
| adj.彩虹色的，闪色的 | |
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102
spectrum
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|
| n.谱，光谱，频谱；范围，幅度，系列 | |
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103
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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104
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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105
elicited
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| 引出，探出( elicit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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106
speculations
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|
| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
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107
acting
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| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
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108
collated
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|
| v.校对( collate的过去式和过去分词 )；整理；核对；整理（文件或书等） | |
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109
scattered
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|
| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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110
philosophical
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|
| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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111
vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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112
respiration
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| n.呼吸作用；一次呼吸；植物光合作用 | |
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113
inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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114
torpor
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| n.迟钝；麻木；（动物的）冬眠 | |
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115
incite
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| v.引起，激动，煽动 | |
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116
incites
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| 刺激，激励，煽动( incite的第三人称单数 ) | |
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117
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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118
repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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119
aggression
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| n.进攻，侵略，侵犯，侵害 | |
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120
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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121
extol
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| v.赞美，颂扬 | |
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122
shun
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| vt.避开，回避，避免 | |
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123
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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124
gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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125
contradictory
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|
| adj.反驳的，反对的，抗辩的；n.正反对，矛盾对立 | |
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126
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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127
propensities
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| n.倾向，习性( propensity的名词复数 ) | |
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128
accomplished
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|
| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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129
goodwill
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| n.善意，亲善，信誉，声誉 | |
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130
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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131
inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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132
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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133
mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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134
arrogantly
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| adv.傲慢地 | |
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135
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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136
adverting
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| 引起注意（advert的现在分词形式） | |
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137
allurements
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|
| n.诱惑( allurement的名词复数 )；吸引；诱惑物；有诱惑力的事物 | |
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138
assailed
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| v.攻击( assail的过去式和过去分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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139
deviate
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| v.(from)背离，偏离 | |
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140
incompetent
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| adj.无能力的，不能胜任的 | |
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141
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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142
investigations
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|
| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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143
repugnance
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| n.嫌恶 | |
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144
deductions
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| 扣除( deduction的名词复数 )； 结论； 扣除的量； 推演 | |
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145
equilibrium
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| n.平衡，均衡，相称，均势，平静 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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ordaining
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的现在分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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quotation
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| n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情 | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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151
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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152
hymn
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌 | |
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153
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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154
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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155
distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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scrupulous
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| adj.审慎的，小心翼翼的，完全的，纯粹的 | |
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157
inflicting
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的现在分词 ) | |
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158
censures
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| v.指责，非难，谴责( censure的第三人称单数 ) | |
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elucidate
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| v.阐明，说明 | |
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interrogate
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| vt.讯问，审问，盘问 | |
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pertinent
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| adj.恰当的；贴切的；中肯的；有关的；相干的 | |
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attainable
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| a.可达到的，可获得的 | |
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stifle
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| vt.使窒息；闷死；扼杀；抑止，阻止 | |
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restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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165
tarnished
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| （通常指金属）（使）失去光泽，（使）变灰暗( tarnish的过去式和过去分词 )； 玷污，败坏 | |
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166
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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167
confide
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| v.向某人吐露秘密 | |
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168
devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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169
multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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171
physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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172
derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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173
vitality
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| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
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174
vibration
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| n.颤动，振动；摆动 | |
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175
wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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176
overthrew
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| overthrow的过去式 | |
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177
nuptials
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| n.婚礼；婚礼( nuptial的名词复数 ) | |
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178
subverted
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| v.颠覆，破坏（政治制度、宗教信仰等）( subvert的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某人）道德败坏或不忠 | |
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179
prudence
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| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
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180
loathe
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| v.厌恶，嫌恶 | |
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181
disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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182
irritable
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| adj.急躁的；过敏的；易怒的 | |
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183
petulant
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| adj.性急的，暴躁的 | |
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184
morose
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| adj.脾气坏的，不高兴的 | |
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185
dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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