Even as towns are built by rivers, instead of rivers being conducted past towns, so the first settlements grew up alongside roads which had formerly9 existed simply as the natural lines of travel for a travelling race. The oldest roads often touch the fewest of our modern towns, villages, and isolated10 houses. It has been conjectured11 that the first roads were originally the tracks of animals. The elephant’s path or tunnel through the jungle is used as a road in India to-day, and in early days the wild herds13 must have been invaluable14 for making a way through forest, for showing the firmest portions of bogs15 and lowland marshes16, and for suggesting fords. The herd12 would wind according to the conditions of the land and to inclinations19 of many inexplicable20 kinds, but the[3] winding21 of the road would be no disadvantage to men who found their living by the wayside, men to whom time was not money. Roads which grew thus by nature and by necessity appear to be almost as lasting22 as rivers. They are found fit for the uses of countless23 different generations of men outside cities, because, apart from cities and their needs, life changes little. If they go out of use in a new or a changed civilization, they may still be frequented by men of the most primitive24 habit. All over England may be found old roads, called Gypsy Lane, Tinker’s Lane, or Smuggler’s Lane; east of Calne, in Wiltshire, is a Juggler’s Lane; and as if the ugliness of the “uggle” sound pleased the good virtuous25 country folk, they have got a Huggler’s Hole a little west of Semley and south of Sedgehill in the same county: there are also Beggar’s Lanes and roads leading past places called Mock Beggar, which is said to mean Much Beggar. These little-used roads are known to lovers, thieves, smugglers, and ghosts. Even if long neglected they are not easily obliterated26. On the fairly even and dry ground of the high ridges27 where men and cattle could spread out wide as they journeyed, the earth itself is unchanged by centuries of traffic, save that the grass is made finer, shorter, paler, and more numerously starred with daisies. But on the slopes down to a plain or ford18 the road takes its immortality29 by violence, for it is divided into two or three or a score of narrow courses, trenched so deeply that they might often seem to be the work rather of some fierce natural[4] force than of slow-travelling men, cattle, and pack-horses. The name Holloway, or Holway, is therefore a likely sign of an old road. So is Sandy Lane, a name in which lurks30 the half-fond contempt of country people for the road which a good “hard road” has superseded31, and now little used save in bird’s-nesting or courting days. These old roads will endure as long as the Roman streets, though great is the difference between the unraised trackway, as dim as a wind-path on the sea, and the straight embanked Roman highway which made the proverb “Plain as Dunstable Road,” or “Good plain Dunstable”—for Watling Street goes broad and straight through that town. Scott has one of these ghostly old roads in Guy Mannering. It was over a heath that had Skiddaw and Saddleback for background, and he calls it a blind road—“the track so slightly marked by the passengers’ footsteps that it can but be traced by a slight shade of verdure from the darker heath around it, and, being only visible to the eye when at some distance, ceases to be distinguished32 while the foot is actually treading it.”
The making of such roads seems one of the most natural operations of man, one in which he least conflicts with nature and the animals. If he makes roads outright33 and rapidly, for a definite purpose, they may perish as rapidly, like the new roads of modern Japanese enterprise, and their ancient predecessors34 live on to smile at their ambition. These are the winding ways preferred by your connoisseur35 to-day. “Give me,”[5] says Hazlitt, “the clear blue sky over my head and the green turf beneath my feet, a winding road before me, and a three-hours’ march to dinner—and then to thinking!” These windings36 are created by the undulating of the land, and by obstacles like those of a river—curves such as those in the High Street of Oxford37, which Wordsworth called “the stream-like windings of that glorious street.” The least obstacle might bring about a loop, if nothing more, and as even a Roman road curled round Silbury Hill, so the path of the Australian savage38 is to be seen twisting round bush after bush as if it enjoyed the interruption, though it cannot purl like the river at a bend. Probably these twists, besides being unconsciously adapted to the lie of the land, were, as they are still, easeful and pleasant to the rover who had some natural love of journeying. Why go straight? There is nothing at the end of any road better than may be found beside it, though there would be no travel did men believe it. The straight road, except over level and open country, can only be made by those in whom extreme haste and forethought have destroyed the power of joy, either at the end or at any part of its course. Why, then, go straight? The connoisseur had something of the savage in him when he demanded a winding road.
It is not, however, to a man walking for pleasure that we shall go for a sense of roads, but to one like Bunyan. Pilgrim’s Progress is full of the sense of roads. See Christian39 going to Mr. Legality’s house. It is a mountain road, and the hill overhangs it[6] so much that he is afraid to venture further “lest the hill should fall on his head.” When Goodwill40 points out the narrow way, he says it was “cast up by the patriarchs, prophets, Christ, and his Apostles,” i.e. made into a raised track bounded by ditches from which the earth was cast up to form the embankment. When Christian comes to the Hill Difficulty you see the primitive man deciding to go straight uphill, turning not to the left by the way called Danger into a great wood, nor to the right to Destruction and the “wide field full of dark mountains.” How full of plain English country wayfaring41 is the passage where Hopeful and Christian take a road by a river-side, and then when it turns away from the water they see a stile leading into a path which keeps on, as a path would do, along the bank through By-path Meadow: only, as it happens, the river is in flood and they must turn back again towards the stile. This man knew roads, and one of his temptations after conversion42 was to try his faith by bidding the puddles43 on the road between his own village and Bedford to be dry. Cervantes had the sense of roads. He begins, indeed, by making Don Quixote sally forth44 “upon the plain” like any knight45 of chivalry46 “pricking o’er the plain” and taking the way chosen by his horse because thus would adventures best be compassed; but it is upon a road that he and most of his knights47, ladies, and enchanters travel. Malory’s book would have less vitality48 in its marvel49 if it were not for the roads: the three highways, for example, where Sir Marhaus and Sir[7] Gawaine and Sir Uwaine were to separate for their adventures each with his damosel; and the wild ways of Sir Launcelot when he “rode many wild ways, throughout marches and many wild ways,” until he came to a valley and a knight therein with a naked sword chasing a lady. Cymbeline again, and some of the historical plays of Shakespeare, give a grand impression of wide tracts50 of country traversed by roads of great purpose and destiny.
More often in books we move, as I have said, from place to place as in a dream. But it is a dream in the Mabinogion which gives one of the most majestic51 scenes of travel. I mean the dream of the Emperor Maxen. He dreamed that he was journeying along a river valley towards its source, and up over the highest mountain in the world until he saw mighty52 rivers descending53 to the sea, and one of them he followed to a great city at its mouth and a vast castle in the city. At the end of his journey the dreaming Emperor found a girl so beautiful that when he awoke he could think of naught55 else, while years went by, except her beauty. He sent out pioneers to discover the road of his dream, and at last they brought him to the castle and the same girl Helen sitting in the hall of it. She became his bride, and he gave her three castles—one at Arvon in North Wales, one at Caerleon, and one at Caermarthen in the South. Then, says the tale, “Helen bethought her to make high-roads from one castle to another throughout the Island of Britain. And the roads were made. And for this cause are they called the roads of Helen Luyddawc, that she was[8] sprung from a native of this island, and the men of the Island of Britain would not have made these great roads for any save her.” It is natural to connect with this Helen the great ancient roads leading north and south across Wales known as Sarn Helen or Elen. Nothing could be more noble as the name of a mountain road than Sarn Helen or Helen’s Causeway. It suggests to the ordinary fanciful and unhistoric mind the British Helena, mother of the Emperor Constantine, and that it suggested this long ago is clear from the old identification of Helen Luyddawc with the only child of King Cole of Colchester. The name has more recently been explained as Sarn y Lleng, the Road of the Legions. Sir John Rhys[1] insists upon Elen instead of Helen, and believes her to be one of the pagan goddesses of the dusk. “There is,” he says, “a certain poetic56 propriety57 in associating the primitive paths and roads of the country with this vagrant58 goddess of dawn and dusk.” These wandering paths are to the hard white highways what dusk is to the full blaze of day. First perhaps trodden by the wild herd and still without terrors for it, they might well be protected by a sort of Artemis, goddess of wildernesses59 and of forked ways, kind both to human hunters and the wild quarry60. They belong to the twilight61 of the world. No doubt the sun shines no brighter at noon than it did then on a perfectly62 wild earth, on flowers that were never gathered, on bright plumage that no man had coveted63. But all the forest and marsh17 of primeval earth form in the[9] imagination mists to which the lack of history adds yet another veil. These mists lie over the world, to my mind, exactly as the white mist of summer lies, turning into a sea most of what once was land and making islands of the woods on the steep, uncultivated tracts. The islands rising out of the mists of time are the hills and mountains, and along their ridges ran the first roads, and by them are the squares and circles of the first habitations and the mounds64 of the first solemnized graves, used sometimes, it is thought, as guides for travellers.
It is particularly easy to think of Southern England as several chains of islands, representing the Downs, the Chilterns and Gog Magogs, the Mendips, Cotswolds and Quantocks. I have more than once caught myself thinking of the broad elephantine back of Butser Hill heaving up, spotted65 with gorse but treeless, between Petersfield and Portsmouth, as Ararat, though my unfaithful eyes fail to imagine the ark. There are days now when the clear suddenly swelling66 hills like Tarberry or Barrow Hill in Hampshire, or Cley Hill or the Knolls67 of Maiden69 Bradley in Wiltshire, or the abrupt70 promontories71 like Chanctonbury or Noar Hill near Selborne, or the long trooping ranges, seem to be islands or atolls looming73 dimly through the snowy still mists of morning or the clouds of rainstorm. Even without mist some of the isolated green hills rise out of the pale levels of cornland as out of sea; and I have seen, from near Bruton, the far-distant mass of Cadbury, the hill some call Camelot in Somerset, look like a dark precipitous isle74. When the early[10] roads along the ridges were made, the hills still more closely resembled islands emerging out of the forest and out of the marsh. The watersheds75 created the roads, as they still do over hundreds of miles in Africa. The roads keep to the highland76, and if this highland were to form a circle they would follow it; and hunters say, as Mr. H. W. Nevinson tells us in A Modern Slavery, that the elephants do “move in a kind of rough zone or circle—from the Upper Zambesi across the Cuando into Angola and the district where they passed me, and so across the Cuanza northward77 and eastward78 into the Congo, and round towards Katanga and the sources of the Zambesi again.” Somewhere too I have met the tradition, probably a Welsh one, that this island of Britain was girdled by a road above its shores. The early nomads79 would descend54 from the ridges only with reluctance80, for fear of the marsh and the dim forest. Doubtless their travelling oxen, especially if burdened, had the same horror of mud—when they are not free to wallow in it—as they have to-day. In a very early age it is likely that men would go down to the rivers only to water their cattle, and then return to the heights. There would be several drinking-places, and at one of them they would discover a ford, unless the animals had already marked one, and then if the river had not become a boundary they might cross and continue their wanderings along a road upon the next island of hills. Thus island would be joined to island. The paths ran along the back of each one and branched over the spurs, and the linking up of these would[11] tend to form highways of great length, like that trodden by Launcelot, “far o’er the long backs of the bushless downs” to Camelot. It were easy to take such a route to-day from anywhere in Berkshire or Hampshire, travelling high and away from cities, except cities of the dead like Avebury, far from towns and villages, through Wiltshire into Somerset or Dorset, on roads which are altogether turf or have so goodly a border of grass and blossom that the wayfarer81 need never touch the hard white grit82 which is the same on a metalled road whether in London or in wild country.
The Ridgeway, near Blowingstone Hill, Berkshire.
Down from the realm-long bridge of islands above[12] the world the traveller descended83 to cities of men. Thus Sir Launcelot after long riding in a great forest came into a low country of fair rivers and meadows and saw before him the long bridge and the three pavilions on it, “of silk and sendal of divers84 hue85.” Thus Sir Bevis of Hampton, cheated of his patrimony86 by a cruel mother and keeping sheep on the Downs, looked and saw below him the town and the tower that should have been his. Thus Cobbett, looking from Portsdown Hill above Portsmouth, saw the sea for the first time and the English fleet riding at anchor at Spithead and his heart “was inflated87 with national pride,” and though he had walked thirty miles that day he slept not a moment, but rose at daylight and offered himself for the sea on board the Pegasus. Thus we descend on Winchester or Salisbury out of the hills, glad to get there what we want as we have for many days gladly wanted what we could get. It has been, let us say, a day that should be spring, and in the dark, wet copses there were thousands of primroses88. All day the wind, and often rain and wind together, roared in the trees. The pale flowers were soaked and frayed89 and speckled with dust from the trees, and they hung down or were broken from their soft stalks. But the high land and the neighbouring sky exalt90 us. Even the sight of these tender-blubbering petals91 ruined in the drenched92 grass was pleasant. We should have liked better to see them unspoiled and wide in the sun; but we did not wish them to be so, and their distress93 did but add to the glory of the storm and to our defiance94, just as[13] did the cowering95 of birds, of bowed trees, of whole woods, under the wild, shadowy swoop96 of the mist and rain, and the valleys below us humbled98, their broad fields, their upthrust churches and clustered villages overwhelmed and blotted99 out, and everything annihilated100 save the wind, the rain, the streaming road, and the vigorous limbs and glowing brain and what they created. Not that we did not welcome freely the minutes of dimly shining stillness that were as a secluded101 garden in a city, when the storm paused; for then we drank in the blue sky and the dark revealed tracts of plain and hill that lay stunned102 and astonished like a dreamer opening his eyelids103 after tumultuous dreams; we drank them with easy joy as of a man reading a great adventure when the heroes of it have long been dead, for we ourselves were so much above all that expanse which, powerless and quiet, might almost seem to belong to the past or to a tale. We and the storm were one and we were triumphant104; and in mid105 triumph we came down to the lighted streets.
As the first roads were made by men following herds, either as hunters or as herdsmen, so ox and sheep have long helped to keep them up. The great road of pilgrimage from Damascus to Mecca is not a made road, but composed of the parallel strands106 of old hollow camel paths. These, says Mr. Charles M. Doughty107 in Arabia Deserta, “one of the ancient Arabian poets has compared to the bars of the rayed Arabic mantle108.” To our own day in England drovers took the cattle lazily along the old roads of the watersheds and ridges. “Ox Drove” is[14] the name in several places of an old green road. Travellers in Wiltshire have noticed on the one-inch Ordnance109 Survey Map a “British Trackway” running W.S.W. out of the road from the Deverills to Maiden Bradley. A large tumulus stands in the first field, as if for a sign at the beginning of the track. Locally this is known as the “Ox Road,” and is said to have been used by droves coming from Mid and East Somerset. It is a continuation of the hard road which it leaves at the tumulus, and following it and its continuations you may travel through Kilmington, and between the Jack’s Castle tumulus and King Alfred’s tower, down Kingsettle Hill, and on close to Cadbury Castle, to Ilchester, and, joining the Foss Way, reach Devon and Cornwall. Only one mile of its course is marked in Old English letters “British Trackway,” and this is apparently110 not even a path, but a protracted111 unevenness112 of the ground, sometimes almost amounting to a ridge28 or terrace in the grass, for the most part following the hedges, and in one place entering a short, nettly lane. The road, in spite of its romantic Old English lettering, is at this point a very humble97 specimen113 of an ancient road and ox drove; for it goes through meadows which are low compared with the fine waves of Down—White Sheet Downs and the Maiden Bradley Hills—on either side of it. A far better one is the ox drove which this joins at Kilmington. It is said to have been used as a road from London to Exeter. Farmers will tell you that the Ox Drove “never touched water,” which they will qualify by saying[15] you could go from Monkton Deverill to Marlborough without touching114 water or crossing it, and if that also is impossible, at any rate they have the tradition of the road’s character in their heads, seldom as they may use it. Along it, says Mr. J. U. Powell,[2] came “fat cattle from the Somerset pastures to London,” and once he thinks it was a road leading to the lead of Somerset and tin of Cornwall.
It goes through the orchards115 of Somerset as a good hard road, but often deprived of its right green borders. When these have been lost they have not always disappeared, and its old breadth is shown probably by a long, narrow field lying first on one side and then, after a zigzag116, on the other, as near the “Bull” to the east of Bruton. Sometimes with a green space beside the road, or a depression behind the hedge, or an aimless avenue of oak trees as at Redlynch, marking the old course, it is a narrow road going in a determined117 manner up and down, but with few deviations118 and having a purpose obviously unconnected with the few cottages on its edge. Here it is called the Hardway. The “hard road” is the countryman’s admiring term for a made road; but it is suggested that the Hardway is the Har- or Harrow-Way, and is a continuation of a road running east and west through Hampshire and Wiltshire. It crosses the little shaded river Brue and ascends119 Kingsettle Hill between high banks of beech120 and oak and bluebell121. It mounts, like a savage who does not mind[16] being out of breath, straight up the steep wooded wall of the hill until at the top it is eight hundred and fifty feet high instead of four hundred, and takes you into Wiltshire. On the right is the huge square tower of brick erected122 by one of the Colt Hoare family in honour of King Alfred. The name Kingsettle Hill was thought by Colt Hoare to mark the pass of King Alfred when, with the chief men of Somerset, he issued from Athelney “after Eastertide,” in 878, and marched to Egbert’s stone in the east part of Selwood Forest. This “stone” or “cliff” has been supposed to be White Sheet Hill, a very conspicuous123 and noble place for the King to gather the people of Somerset, Wiltshire, and Hampshire before leading them to the victory of Edington. On the right and, like Alfred’s Tower, at the brink124 of the hill is the big tumulus known as Jack’s Castle; and from either you command Somersetshire nearly as far as the curvature of the earth allows. From the oaks and bluebells125 of the slopes beneath you stretches a low subdivided126 country of many oaks—and cuckoos calling from them—and the Hardway penetrating127 it from the south-west. Colt Hoare calls the tumulus “Selwood Barrow,” a beacon128 above the great Forest of Selwood and possibly a direction post for travellers from the west to Old Sarum. In the north-west the land rises up to a ridge with a comb of beech trees, which is Creech Hill above Bruton, and at its feet the masses of Pink Wood and Norridge Wood. The Mendips are a dim cloud beyond it on the right, the Quantocks a dimmer cloud on the left; and in the low[17] land between them is Athelney, and near it Glastonbury, standing129 above the full-grown Brue. Sometimes the wind-like sound of an invisible train ascends.
The road takes you through the remains130 of Selwood Forest. Now it has a fair green border, often of considerable breadth. That you are in Wiltshire there can be no doubt on emerging from the trees. For in front upon the left are those gentle monsters, the smooth Long and Little Knolls above Maiden Bradley, smooth, detached green dunes131 crested132 and fringed with beeches133. Under this side of the Long Knoll68 is the tower of Kilmington Church among its trees. Lying across the road a few miles ahead are the bare White Sheet Downs, which are to be mounted, and farther to the right the wooded beacons134 above Fonthill Gifford and East Knoyle. The road makes for the scar of a high quarry on the nearest slope of White Sheet, a little to the left of a lesser135 isolated hill, a smooth, wooded knoll or islet. The road is gently and evenly rising, a hard, white road almost straight, between grassy136 borders with thorns and brambles under beeches that overhang from behind the hedge. They are good trees standing on a strip of turf furrowed137 as if it had once been the road or part of it; and some young ones have been lately planted, so that all is not yet over with English country, though landlords say so. The road crosses another to Kilmington and Yarnfield, and at once it is older-looking, hard, but winding slightly among bushy and lush steep banks. You see flowers and ash trees, and a linnet on the tip of one, but nothing[18] distant save white clouds and the blue. Here it is called Long Lane, and among its herbage is an old London milestone138. Long Lane is often the title of a lane coming from somewhere afar off: there is one south of Hermitage, giving its name to a village, in Berkshire, and one near Cucklington in Somerset, where there is a Tinker’s Hill also. In another mile Long Lane crosses the Maiden Bradley road by a smithy and a “Red Lion”; its name becomes White Sheet Lane, and it goes straight in sight of the high white quarry and the deep tracks up to White Street Castle. Like Long Lane, it is a parish boundary. Both are without a house: the road has hardly passed a house since Redlynch, save at a crossing, and those living in the houses use the road only for a mile or so on the way to a village on either side. Slanting139 uphill under the quarry, with a parallel green way hollowed beside it, goes the road’s bolder self. The hedges and banks are low, and the cornland or meadow is open round about. The lane turns to climb White Sheet Hill, and beeches and some whitebeam trees cool the beginning of the ascent140; there are myriads141 of primroses in their season and chaffinches singing. You pass a thatched house and the lime-kiln of “Tom Gatehouse, Lime Burner,” by the quarry, and another milestone showing twenty-three miles to Sarum and a date like 1757—when Blake was born. Looking back, the Knolls are on the right and Alfred’s Tower on the left among the woods. There are tumuli on the right as the road comes clear out on to the hill-top and travels between the[19] wired fences of the downland pasture. Here stand cows who do not often see a pencil sharpened. Pewits wheel over and before and behind; all along the high course of the road the pewits cry and wheel. The road is at first rutted, but is soon a green smooth track on the highest land, skirting the upper ends of coombes dappled dusky gold by gorse, and commanding bare downland on the left and wooded hills on the right, and looking along a great bottom to the church tower of Mere7, and Mere’s beautiful “Long Hill,” and the wide-arboured vale stretching away to the long ridge of Dorset. It is a high way and a proud way. After crossing an ancient ditch it is labelled “British Trackway,” and ahead it is seen going between a wire fence and a dark line of tussocks. Then it is divided into three or four parallel terraces grooved142 by wheels, but with a lark’s nest in the green rut. It crosses the Mere road as two hollow ways side by side, but in a little while is only a green track with single thorns on the left. Here is the twenty-first milestone from Sarum, the ninety-ninth from London, inscribed143 1750, and it is called the London Drove Road; it is still in sight of Alfred’s Tower, now protruding144 above White Sheet ramparts. In one place it is so wide that the milestone stands out in the middle, like a traveller asleep or turned to stone among mole-heaps that have blotted the signs of other travellers. On the left, as far as the main Wincanton road, part of the track is embanked; entering the hard motor road to Amesbury and London, the old way is outlined chiefly by the[20] thorns of Old Willoughby Hedge on the left. The road going hedgeless across the downland is but the thin backbone145 of the old green way. For a time the line of thorns diverges146, and then, soon after the crossing of the Warminster road, they come slanting from the right to meet the road and cross it just before another milestone. Hereby are three milestones147 on different roads, all close together, which has caused the easy winning of merry wagers148 to run past three milestones in three minutes. The drove crosses several roads going to Hindon, as a broad green track with or without a hedge, marked by its greater profusion149 of daisies and its paleness and lack of tussocks. Still there are pewits, and somewhere not far away a Pewit Castle. It is joined again by the main Amesbury road beyond Cold Berwick Hill, but presently deserted150, the busier white way going boldly off over the ridge, and down to the Wylye River and up again on to Salisbury Plain by Yarnbury, and so past Stonehenge to Amesbury. The green road winds along the south slope of the ridge. Now two lines of thorns show the course far ahead, or the white weals of an ascent are seen; now gorse encroaches on it, and at a crossway corned-beef tins and grey embers mark an encampment of nomads. It passes thickets151 of thorn and wayfaring trees burying an old milestone to Sarum. Turf or corn lies on either hand or on both. It keeps along the edge of Groveley Woods and within sound of the nightingales until it bends down to Salisbury; once probably it or a higher parallel[21] course went over a ford to Old Sarum, and evidently it is vastly older than the eighteenth-century milestones, perhaps old enough to have guided the Hampshire men and some of the Wiltshiremen to Alfred, a road such as Cobbett loved for the hammering of horses’ hoofs153 on flints.
Another fine ox drove, and dignified154 by that name and by old lettering on the Ordnance Map, ran clear for a long stretch along the high land south of the Ebble River, from a point four miles south of Salisbury and westwards by Winkelbury to the south of Shaftesbury. It may some day be proved that one of the most famous of ancient roads, the Icknield Way itself, was an ox drove. There is said to be a charter mentioning the Icknield Way as “the way the cattle go”; and one writer has boldly derived156 the very name from the British Yken, or Ychen, meaning oxen. Every district in the chalk country has its tradition of an old road, now surviving in a footpath157 or in broken vertebr? of lane and footpath to provide walkers with endless theories. At Swindon, for example, it is said[3] that the Holy Well stood on a road coming from the east and going westward155 past Bradenstoke Abbey into Somerset, and on another used by pilgrims to the shrine158 of St. Anne’s in the Wood, at Brislington in Somerset, which went by Elcombe, Hay Lane Bridge, Bushton, Clyffe, Calne, Studley, Chippenham, Pewsham Forest, Bradford, Keynsham Abbey, and Whitchurch, to Brislington, which is in the south-east of Bristol and has now a station called[22] St. Ann’s Park. But this is not the place to give way to the fascination159 of a roll-call of country names.
Except that bridges superannuated160 fords, the conditions for the travelling of cattle cannot have changed much from Alfred’s time until the day of railway trucks carrying thickets of moaning horns and square blocks of sheep. The turnpike system helped to preserve the old roads because drovers using them could avoid the tolls72; their cattle could also feed by the wayside. Canon Jackson,[4] in 1862, said that the Ridgeway of Berkshire and Wiltshire was part of the road used for ages and to this day for driving cattle from Anglesey into Kent. Mr. Walter Money, in a note to Miss Gossett’s Shepherds of Britain, said much the same thing. Unfortunately neither has told us anything of their route. I have no doubt they could have covered most of the distance on grass. I should like to have travelled with them. You will find “Welsh Ways” all over England. Walkers or Workaway Hill, where the Ridgeway descends161 southward from Wansdyke to the Pewsey Valley, is said to be a corruption162 of Weala-wege, and to have been called Walcway (or Welshway) by a shepherd not long ago. There is a “Welshway” in Northamptonshire making past Northampton for Wales by way of Banbury and the Cotswolds, and said to have been the route of Welsh drovers. There is a “Welsh Lane” in the Cotswolds turning out of the Gloucester road, three or four miles from Cirencester, and going up the [24] hill by Four Mile Bottom towards Barnsley. I met an old man who remembered helping163 the Welsh drovers with their black cattle there sixty years ago. They were putting up near by for the night, and they liked the boy because his name was David. In the downland these roads would be practicable for the most part all the year round; but Defoe tells us that the clay roads of the Midlands used to be so bad that graziers sold their stock in September and October: they could then be taken to the neighbourhood of London and kept until mid-winter to be sold at a high price. Cheshire men used to send their cheese to London either all the way by sea or overland to Burton, and so by the river to Hull164 and thence by sea. Gloucester men sent their goods by land to Lechlade or Cricklade, and then onward165 by the Thames; but their flocks doubtless could travel by Bath and go along the down ways eastward. But he says that now the roads are good, and mutton comes straight from the country in December, and almost as cheap as in summer.
Under Liddington Hill, Wiltshire.
I have not had the fortune to meet drovers from Wales, but where the Icknield Way through Buckinghamshire rounds the promontory166 Beacon of the Ivinghoe Hills I have seen men with sheep from Berkshire or Dorset journeying towards Dunstable, Royston, and the farms of Cambridgeshire and Suffolk. They have to go much on the hard grit to-day, and I have heard that they are kept off the unfenced Ridgeway lest the flock should eat too much of the pastures in their passage. The sheep[25] dislike the grit as much as Mr. Burroughs loves it and I hate it, and what with the traffic and the harshness of the road it is not surprising to hear of a Welsh flock taking a week to get from Warminster to Monckton Deverill.
Where the high down roads are fenced there could be no better wayfaring. The track is twenty or thirty yards wide or more. It is untouched by wheels, and grows nothing but grass and the most delicate flowers. Along similar droves doubtless the sheep go up to the alpine167 grass in summer, as the shepherd in California told Miss Mary Austin.[5] “We went between the fenced pastures, feeding every other day and driving at night. In the dark we heard the bells ahead and slept upon our feet. Myself and another herdboy, we tied ourselves together not to wander from the road.... Whenever shepherds from the Rhone are met about camps in the Sierras they will be talking of how they slept upon their feet and followed after the bells.” The best time to meet travelling sheep is after one of the fortnightly markets at East Ilsley among the Berkshire Downs, or at the time of the Ram3 Fair there on August 1st, or at the time of Tan Hill Fair on August 6th, or Yarnbury Fair on October 4th. Tan Hill and Yarnbury fairs are both held within the circuit of an old camp on the high chalk. Yarnbury is a meeting-place of trackways over Salisbury Plain. Tan Hill is close to the great Ridgeway and other trackways. Tan is supposed by some to be connected with the Celtic[26] “tan,” meaning fire, and with Celtic religious festivals having ceremonies of fire. This fair was held at a very early hour, and there is an obvious temptation to suggest a religious origin for the beacons said to have been lighted to guide the drovers.[6] I do not know what number of sheep would be sold at this fair. Defoe says that as many as five hundred thousand were sold at Weyhill Fair, one farmer attending to represent ten or twenty in his own county of Sussex or Oxfordshire. If this number came to Tan Hill it was worth a night’s drenching168 to see the beacons and the multitudes arriving, to hear the bells and the sea of tired bleating169 and the sharp chiding170 of the overstrung dogs and the curses of the sleepy drovers upon that smooth, bare mountain without house or hut or a white road, or anything much newer than Wansdyke except the square of mustard that began to dawn through the mist like a banner not far away.
The Arab’s answer to Mr. Doughty’s[7] question whether he knew all the strange spires171, pinnacles172, and battlements of the wind-worn sand rock in the desert was that he knew, “as good as every great stone” in all his marches over three or four thousand square miles; and there were drovers who could have said as much of the landmarks173 on the downs, the tumulus and camp, the furze thicket152, the hawthorns174, solitary175 or in line, the beech or fir clump176, the church tower, the distant white wall[27] or scallop of a chalk-pit, the white horse carved through the turf into the chalk, the church towers of the valley, the long coombes.
Even when deserted, these old roads are kept in memory by many signs. The grass refuses to grow over the still stream of turf in the same way as at either side of it. A line of thorn trees follows their course, or the hedge or fence or wall dividing two fields. They survive commonly and conspicuously177 as boundaries between fields, between estates, parishes, hundreds, and counties. It is one of the adventurous178 pleasures of a good map thus to trace the possible course of a known old road or to discover one that was lost. A distinct chain of footpath, lane, and road—road, lane, and footpath—leading across the country and corresponding in much of its course with boundaries is likely to be an ancient way. By this means much of the line of a road like the Icknield Way might be recovered if document and tradition had not preserved it. Without these signs few men to-day could tell an old from a new road, though, in fact, there are not many great lengths of entirely179 new road except in new towns and newly drained regions; elsewhere the new roads have been made by linking up or improving old ones. The life of cities has destroyed at once the necessity and the power to judge the expanse of earth under our eyes, and few but soldiers educate whatever gift they have for this kind of judgment180. If we learn to use a map, it is without fundamental understanding, without the savage’s or the soldier’s or the traveller’s grasp;[28] we must have inherited glimmerings of the old power, but they help us chiefly to an ?sthetic appreciation181 of landscape. Let a man take an old map—not a very old one, which may be faulty or deficient—of his own district, and see if he can really grasp the system of the hills and rivers, and the bones of the land and the essential roads, and not be long baffled merely by the absence of certain new roads and familiar names; for few old ones will have entirely disappeared. If he is not so baffled he has cause for pride. Many are to be found who can hardly read a map when going from north to south, i.e. down the map instead of up it, with the east on the left and the west on the right and the north behind; and their difficulty is increased by being in a railway train. Such men may be very good walkers and very good men, though they be walking for exercise, or to improve body or soul, which is a reason that has lately been condemned182 by Mr. Belloc. “The detestable habit of walking for exercise,” he tells us, “warps the soul.”[8] He is perhaps assuming that the man always keeps this one object in view, and is always looking at his watch or feeling his pulse. But even a man walking for exercise may forget his object and unexpectedly profit; he may surprise happiness by the wayside or beyond the third stile, and no man can do more, whether he have the best and the most Bellocian object in the world. Then he condemns183 also men who ride along the road and[29] into an inn yard and feel that they are “like some one in a book.” This is a rather serious matter. Authors have unintentionally persuaded simple men to suffer many blisters184 for the chance of drinking ale in the manner of Borrow and meeting adventures, in the hope of being heartily185 and Whitmanesquely democratic. Even Leslie Stephen half-seriously lamented186 that he was unworthy of Borrovian adventures; for they never fell to him. A writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine has made a good piece of prose in which he speaks of himself reading the Essays of Elia in an old inn at Llandovery—as Hazlitt read La Nouvelle Heloise at Llangollen on his birthday. A great many must be walking over England nowadays for the primary object of writing books: it has not been decided188 whether this is a worthy187 object. Mr. John Burroughs also condemns a walk taken as a prescription189, but goes so far as to regard walking itself as a virtue190. He says that his countrymen “have fallen from that state of grace which capacity to enjoy a walk implies”; that they pride themselves on small feet, though “a little foot never yet supported a great character.” He says they could “walk away from all their ennui191, their worldly cares, their uncharitableness, their pride of dress; for these devils always want to ride, while the simple virtues192 are never so happy as on foot.” He concludes by singing “the sweetness of gravel193 and good sharp quartz-grit.” He must be singing the grit of yester-year, or he never walked all day in the full blaze of summer upon the grit between[30] Newmarket and Hitchin. Leslie Stephen thought the true walker one to whom walking “is in itself delightful”; he regarded walking as a panacea194 for authors, and believed that it could have cured Johnson and made Byron like Scott. A year or two ago Mr. Harold Munro took a month across France into Italy, for a part of the time putting himself out of reach of letters—to prove to himself that he could do it. There are plenty of adventures in modern life, but we still crave195 for the conspicuous ones which look so splendid when their heroes are distant or in the grave. These are the only adven[31]tures which we deign196 to recognize as such, and walking being a primitive act “natural to man,” as Mr. Belloc says, we feel restored to a pristine197 majesty, or Arcadianism at least, when we undertake it. Perhaps if we walk long enough we shall discover something about roads. There could be few better objects for walking, unless it be to meet a mistress or to fetch a doctor. We walk for a thousand reasons, because we are tired of sitting, because we cannot rest, to get away from towns or to get into them, or because we cannot afford to ride; and for permanent use the last is perhaps the best, as it is the oldest.
The Icknield Way and Old Parallel Tracks, near Newmarket.
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1
testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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metaphor
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| n.隐喻，暗喻 | |
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ram
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| (random access memory)随机存取存储器 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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recollecting
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| v.记起，想起( recollect的现在分词 ) | |
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strata
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| n.地层（复数）；社会阶层 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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invaluable
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| adj.无价的，非常宝贵的，极为贵重的 | |
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bogs
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| n.沼泽，泥塘( bog的名词复数 )；厕所v.（使）陷入泥沼， （使）陷入困境( bog的第三人称单数 )；妨碍，阻碍 | |
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marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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marsh
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| n.沼泽，湿地 | |
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Ford
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| n.浅滩，水浅可涉处；v.涉水，涉过 | |
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inclinations
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| 倾向( inclination的名词复数 )； 倾斜； 爱好； 斜坡 | |
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inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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winding
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| n.绕，缠，绕组，线圈 | |
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lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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obliterated
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| v.除去( obliterate的过去式和过去分词 )；涂去；擦掉；彻底破坏或毁灭 | |
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ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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28
ridge
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| n.山脊；鼻梁；分水岭 | |
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29
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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lurks
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| n.潜在，潜伏；（lurk的复数形式）vi.潜伏，埋伏（lurk的第三人称单数形式） | |
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31
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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32
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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outright
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| adv.坦率地；彻底地；立即；adj.无疑的；彻底的 | |
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predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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35
connoisseur
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| n.鉴赏家，行家，内行 | |
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windings
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| （道路、河流等）蜿蜒的，弯曲的( winding的名词复数 )； 缠绕( wind的现在分词 )； 卷绕； 转动（把手） | |
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Oxford
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| n.牛津（英国城市） | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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goodwill
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| n.善意，亲善，信誉，声誉 | |
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wayfaring
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| adj.旅行的n.徒步旅行 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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puddles
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| n.水坑， （尤指道路上的）雨水坑( puddle的名词复数 ) | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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vitality
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| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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50
tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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51
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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52
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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53
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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55
naught
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| n.无，零 [=nought] | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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57
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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58
vagrant
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| n.流浪者，游民；adj.流浪的，漂泊不定的 | |
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59
wildernesses
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| 荒野( wilderness的名词复数 )； 沙漠； （政治家）在野； 不再当政（或掌权） | |
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60
quarry
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| n.采石场；v.采石；费力地找 | |
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twilight
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| n.暮光，黄昏；暮年，晚期，衰落时期 | |
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62
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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coveted
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| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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64
mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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spotted
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| adj.有斑点的，斑纹的，弄污了的 | |
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swelling
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| n.肿胀 | |
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knolls
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| n.小圆丘，小土墩( knoll的名词复数 ) | |
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knoll
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| n.小山，小丘 | |
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69
maiden
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| n.少女，处女；adj.未婚的，纯洁的，无经验的 | |
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abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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promontories
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| n.岬，隆起，海角( promontory的名词复数 ) | |
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tolls
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| （缓慢而有规律的）钟声( toll的名词复数 )； 通行费； 损耗； （战争、灾难等造成的）毁坏 | |
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73
looming
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| n.上现蜃景（光通过低层大气发生异常折射形成的一种海市蜃楼）v.隐约出现，阴森地逼近( loom的现在分词 )；隐约出现，阴森地逼近 | |
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74
isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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watersheds
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| n.分水岭( watershed的名词复数 )；分水线；转折点；流域 | |
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highland
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| n.(pl.)高地，山地 | |
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northward
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| adv.向北；n.北方的地区 | |
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eastward
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| adv.向东；adj.向东的；n.东方，东部 | |
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nomads
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| n.游牧部落的一员( nomad的名词复数 )；流浪者；游牧生活；流浪生活 | |
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80
reluctance
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| n.厌恶，讨厌，勉强，不情愿 | |
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wayfarer
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| n.旅人 | |
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82
grit
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| n.沙粒，决心，勇气；v.下定决心，咬紧牙关 | |
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83
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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84
divers
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| adj.不同的；种种的 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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patrimony
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| n.世袭财产，继承物 | |
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87
inflated
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| adj.（价格）飞涨的；（通货）膨胀的；言过其实的；充了气的v.使充气（于轮胎、气球等）( inflate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）膨胀；（使）通货膨胀；物价上涨 | |
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88
primroses
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| n.报春花( primrose的名词复数 )；淡黄色；追求享乐（招至恶果） | |
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frayed
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| adj.磨损的v.（使布、绳等）磨损，磨破( fray的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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90
exalt
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| v.赞扬，歌颂，晋升，提升 | |
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91
petals
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| n.花瓣( petal的名词复数 ) | |
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92
drenched
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| adj.湿透的；充满的v.使湿透( drench的过去式和过去分词 )；在某人（某物）上大量使用（某液体） | |
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93
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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94
defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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95
cowering
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| v.畏缩，抖缩( cower的现在分词 ) | |
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96
swoop
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| n.俯冲，攫取；v.抓取，突然袭击 | |
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97
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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98
humbled
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| adj. 卑下的，谦逊的，粗陋的 vt. 使 ... 卑下，贬低 | |
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99
blotted
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| 涂污( blot的过去式和过去分词 )； （用吸墨纸）吸干 | |
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100
annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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101
secluded
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| adj.与世隔绝的；隐退的；偏僻的v.使隔开，使隐退( seclude的过去式和过去分词) | |
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102
stunned
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| adj. 震惊的，惊讶的 动词stun的过去式和过去分词 | |
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103
eyelids
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| n.眼睑( eyelid的名词复数 )；眼睛也不眨一下；不露声色；面不改色 | |
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104
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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105
mid
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| adj.中央的，中间的 | |
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106
strands
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| n.（线、绳、金属线、毛发等的）股( strand的名词复数 )；缕；海洋、湖或河的)岸；（观点、计划、故事等的）部份v.使滞留，使搁浅( strand的第三人称单数 ) | |
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107
doughty
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| adj.勇猛的，坚强的 | |
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108
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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109
ordnance
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| n.大炮，军械 | |
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110
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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111
protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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112
unevenness
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| n. 不平坦，不平衡，不匀性 | |
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113
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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114
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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115
orchards
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| （通常指围起来的）果园( orchard的名词复数 ) | |
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116
zigzag
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| n.曲折，之字形；adj.曲折的，锯齿形的；adv.曲折地，成锯齿形地；vt.使曲折；vi.曲折前行 | |
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117
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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118
deviations
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| 背离，偏离( deviation的名词复数 )； 离经叛道的行为 | |
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119
ascends
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的第三人称单数 ) | |
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120
beech
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| n.山毛榉；adj.山毛榉的 | |
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121
bluebell
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| n.风铃草 | |
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122
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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123
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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124
brink
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| n.(悬崖、河流等的)边缘，边沿 | |
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125
bluebells
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| n.圆叶风铃草( bluebell的名词复数 ) | |
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126
subdivided
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| 再分，细分( subdivide的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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127
penetrating
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| adj.（声音）响亮的，尖锐的adj.（气味）刺激的adj.（思想）敏锐的，有洞察力的 | |
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128
beacon
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| n.烽火，（警告用的）闪火灯，灯塔 | |
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129
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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130
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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131
dunes
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| 沙丘( dune的名词复数 ) | |
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132
crested
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| adj.有顶饰的，有纹章的，有冠毛的v.到达山顶（或浪峰）( crest的过去式和过去分词 )；到达洪峰，达到顶点 | |
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133
beeches
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| n.山毛榉( beech的名词复数 )；山毛榉木材 | |
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134
beacons
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| 灯塔( beacon的名词复数 )； 烽火； 指路明灯； 无线电台或发射台 | |
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135
lesser
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| adj.次要的，较小的；adv.较小地，较少地 | |
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136
grassy
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| adj.盖满草的；长满草的 | |
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137
furrowed
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| v.犁田，开沟( furrow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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138
milestone
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| n.里程碑；划时代的事件 | |
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139
slanting
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| 倾斜的，歪斜的 | |
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140
ascent
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| n.(声望或地位)提高；上升，升高；登高 | |
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141
myriads
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| n.无数，极大数量( myriad的名词复数 ) | |
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142
grooved
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| v.沟( groove的过去式和过去分词 )；槽；老一套；（某种）音乐节奏 | |
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143
inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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144
protruding
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| v.（使某物）伸出，（使某物）突出( protrude的现在分词 )；凸 | |
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145
backbone
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| n.脊骨，脊柱，骨干；刚毅，骨气 | |
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146
diverges
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| 分开( diverge的第三人称单数 )； 偏离； 分歧； 分道扬镳 | |
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147
milestones
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| n.重要事件( milestone的名词复数 )；重要阶段；转折点；里程碑 | |
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148
wagers
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| n.赌注，用钱打赌( wager的名词复数 )v.在（某物）上赌钱，打赌( wager的第三人称单数 )；保证，担保 | |
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149
profusion
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| n.挥霍；丰富 | |
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150
deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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151
thickets
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| n.灌木丛( thicket的名词复数 )；丛状物 | |
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152
thicket
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| n.灌木丛，树林 | |
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153
hoofs
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| n.（兽的）蹄，马蹄( hoof的名词复数 )v.（兽的）蹄，马蹄( hoof的第三人称单数 ) | |
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154
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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155
westward
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| n.西方，西部；adj.西方的，向西的；adv.向西 | |
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156
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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157
footpath
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| n.小路，人行道 | |
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158
shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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159
fascination
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| n.令人着迷的事物，魅力，迷恋 | |
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160
superannuated
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| adj.老朽的，退休的；v.因落后于时代而废除，勒令退学 | |
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161
descends
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| v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 )；下去；下降；下斜 | |
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162
corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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163
helping
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| n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的 | |
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164
hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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165
onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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166
promontory
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| n.海角；岬 | |
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167
alpine
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| adj.高山的；n.高山植物 | |
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168
drenching
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| n.湿透v.使湿透( drench的现在分词 )；在某人（某物）上大量使用（某液体） | |
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169
bleating
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| v.（羊，小牛）叫( bleat的现在分词 )；哭诉；发出羊叫似的声音；轻声诉说 | |
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170
chiding
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| v.责骂，责备( chide的现在分词 ) | |
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171
spires
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| n.（教堂的） 塔尖，尖顶( spire的名词复数 ) | |
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172
pinnacles
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| 顶峰( pinnacle的名词复数 )； 顶点； 尖顶； 小尖塔 | |
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173
landmarks
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| n.陆标( landmark的名词复数 )；目标；（标志重要阶段的）里程碑 ~ (in sth)；有历史意义的建筑物（或遗址） | |
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174
hawthorns
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| n.山楂树( hawthorn的名词复数 ) | |
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175
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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176
clump
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| n.树丛，草丛；vi.用沉重的脚步行走 | |
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177
conspicuously
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| ad.明显地，惹人注目地 | |
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178
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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179
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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180
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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181
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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182
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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183
condemns
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| v.（通常因道义上的原因而）谴责( condemn的第三人称单数 )；宣判；宣布…不能使用；迫使…陷于不幸的境地 | |
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184
blisters
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| n.水疱( blister的名词复数 )；水肿；气泡 | |
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185
heartily
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| adv.衷心地，诚恳地，十分，很 | |
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186
lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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187
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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188
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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189
prescription
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| n.处方，开药；指示，规定 | |
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190
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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191
ennui
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| n.怠倦，无聊 | |
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192
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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193
gravel
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| n.砂跞；砂砾层；结石 | |
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194
panacea
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| n.万灵药；治百病的灵药 | |
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195
crave
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| vt.渴望得到，迫切需要，恳求，请求 | |
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196
deign
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| v. 屈尊, 惠允 ( 做某事) | |
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197
pristine
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| adj.原来的，古时的，原始的，纯净的，无垢的 | |
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