But although the absence of adequate restrictions8 on admission to membership, and the ease of affiliation9, not to speak of other reasons, had led to the acceptance of numbers of those who were only nominally10 interested in trade unionism, it had also permitted the entry of a band of women, not all qualified12 as wage-workers, but in faith and deed devoted13 trade unionists, and keenly alive to the necessity of bringing the wage-earning woman into the labor movement. The energies of this group were evidently sadly missed during the early years of the American Federation of Labor.
The present national organization came into existence in 1881, under the style and title of the Federation of Trades and Labor unions of the United States and Canada. It reorganized at the convention of 1886, and adopted the present name, the American Federation of Labor. It was built up by trade-union members of the skilled trades, and to them trade qualifications and trade autonomy were essential articles of faith. This was a much more solid groundwork upon which to raise a labor movement. But at first it worked none too well for the women, although as the national organizations with women members joined the Federation the women were necessarily taken in, too. Likewise they shared in some, at least, of the benefits and advantages accruing14 from the linking together of the organized workers in one strong body. But the unions of which the new organization was composed in these early days were principally unions in what were exclusively men's trades, such as the building and iron trades, mining and so on. In the trades, again, in which women were engaged, they were not in any great numbers to be found in the union of the trade. So the inferior position held by women in the industrial world was therefore inevitably15 reflected in the Federation. It is true that time after time, in the very earliest conventions, resolutions would be passed recommending the organization of women. But matters went no further.
In 1882 Mrs. Charlotte Smith, president and representative of an organization styled variously the Women's National Labor League, and the Women's National Industrial League, presented a memorial to the Convention of the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor unions (the Federation's name at that time), asking for the advice, assistance and co?peration of labor organizations. She mentioned that in 1880, there were recorded 2,647,157 women as employed in gainful occupations. A favorable resolution followed. At the convention of 1885, she was again present, and was accorded a seat without a vote. On her request again the delegates committed themselves to a resolution favoring the organization of women.
In 1890 Delegate T.J. Morgan, of Chicago, introduced, and the convention passed, a resolution, favoring the submission16 to Congress of an amendment17 extending the right of suffrage18 to women. At this convention appeared the first fully19 accredited20 woman delegate, Mrs. Mary Burke, of the Retail21 Clerks, from Findlay, Ohio. A resolution was introduced and received endorsement22, but no action followed. It asked for the placing in the field of a sufficient number of women organizers to labor in behalf of the emancipation23 of women of the wage-working class.
In 1891 there were present at the annual convention of the American Federation of Labor Mrs. Eva McDonald Valesh and Miss Ida Van Etten. A committee was appointed with Mrs. Valesh as chairman and Miss Van Etten as secretary. They brought in a report that the convention create the office of national organizer, the organizer to be a woman at a salary of twelve hundred dollars a year and expenses, to be appointed the following January, and that the constitution be so amended24 that the woman organizer have a seat on the Executive Board. The latter suggestion was not acted upon. But Miss Mary E. Kenney of the Bindery Women (now Mrs. Mary Kenney O'Sullivan) was appointed organizer, and held the position for five months. She attended the 1892 convention as a fully accredited delegate. Naturally she could produce no very marked results in that brief period, and the remark is made that her work was of necessity of a pioneer and missionary26 character rather than one of immediate27 results—a self-evident commentary. Later women were organizers for brief periods, one being Miss Anna Fitzgerald, of the National Women's Label League.
As years passed on, and the American Federation of Labor grew by the affiliation of almost all the national trade unions, it became the one acknowledged central national body. Along with the men, such women as were in the organizations came in, too. But it was only as a rare exception that we heard of women delegates, and no woman has ever yet had a seat upon the Executive Board, although women delegates have been appointed upon both special and standing7 committees.
The responsibility for this must be shared by all. It is partly an outgrowth of the backward state of the women themselves. They are at a disadvantage in their lack of training, their lower wages and their unconsciousness of the benefits of organization; also owing to the fact that such a large number of women are engaged in the unskilled trades that are hardest to organize. On the other hand, neither the national unions, the state and central bodies, nor the local unions have ever realized the value of the women membership they actually have, nor the urgent necessity that exists for organizing all working-women. To their own trade gatherings29 even, they have rarely admitted women delegates in proportion to the number of women workers. Only now and then, even today, do we find a woman upon the executive board of a national trade union, and when it comes to electing delegates to labor's yearly national gathering28, it is men who are chosen, even in a trade like the garment-workers, in which there is a great preponderance of women.
Of the important international unions with women members there are but
two which have a continuous, unbroken history of over fifty years.
These are the Typographical union, dating back to 1850, and the Cigar
Makers30' International union, which was founded in 1864.
Other international bodies, founded since, are:
Boot and Shoe Workers' union. 1889
Hotel and Restaurant Employés union. 1890
Retail Clerks' International Protective Association. 1890
United Garment Workers of America. 1891
International Brotherhood31 of Bookbinders. 1892
Tobacco Workers' International union. 1895
International Ladies' Garment Workers' union. 1900
Shirt, Waist and Laundry Workers International U'n. 1900
United Textile Workers' union. 1901
International Glove Workers' union of N. America. 1902
One group of unions, older than any of these, dating back to 1885, are the locals of the hat trimmers. These workers belong to no national organization, and it is only recently that they have been affiliated32 with the American Federation of Labor. They are not, as might be judged from the title, milliners; they trim and bind25 men's hats. They co?perate with the Panama and Straw Hat Trimmers and Operators. In New York the hat trimmers and the workers in straw are combined into one organization, under the name of the United Felt, Panama and Straw Hat Trimmers' and Operators' union of Greater New York. The Hat Trimmers are almost wholly a women's organization, and their affairs are controlled almost entirely33 by women. The various locals co?perate with and support one another. But in their stage of organization this group of unions closely resembles the local unions, whether of men or women, which existed in so many trades before the day of nation-wide organizations set in. Eventually it must come about that they join the national organization. Outside of New York there are locals in New Jersey34, Massachusetts and Connecticut. The parent union is that of Danbury, Connecticut.
The girl hat-trimmers, under the leadership of Melinda Scott, of Newark and New York, have during the last ten years improved both wages and conditions and have besides increased their numbers and aided in forming new locals in other centers. They are known in the annals of organized labor chiefly for the loyalty35 and devotion they showed during the strike of the Danbury hatters in 1909. They not only refused, to a girl, to go back to work, when that would have broken the strike, but time after time, when money was collected and sent to them, even as large a sum as one thousand dollars, they handed it over to the men's organizations, feeling that the men, with wives and children dependent upon them, were in even greater need than themselves. "Seeing the larger vision and recognizing the greater need, these young women gave to the mother and the child of their working brothers. Although a small group, there is none whose members have shown a more complete understanding of the inner meaning of trade unionism, or a finer spirit of self-sacrifice in the service of their fellows."
When we try to estimate the power of a movement, we judge it by its numbers, by its activities, and by its influence upon other movements.
As to the numbers of women trade unionists, we have very imperfect statistics upon which to base any finding. If the statistics kept by the Labor Bureau of the state of New York can be taken as typical of conditions in other parts of the country, and they probably can, the proportion of women unionists has not at all kept pace with the increasing numbers of men organized. In 1894 there were in that state 149,709 men trade unionists, and 7,488 women. In 1902 both had about doubled their numbers—these read: men, 313,592; women, 15,509. By 1908, however, while there were then of men, 363,761, the women had diminished to 10,698. Since then, we have to note a marked change, beginning with 1910, and continuing ever since. In 1913 the unionized men reached 568,726, and the women 78,522. The increase of men in the organized trades of the state during the twelvemonth preceding September 30, 1913, was twenty per cent., while of women it was one hundred and eleven per cent. This enormous increase, more than doubling the entire union strength among women, is mainly due to the successful organization in the garment trades in New York City.
So far there has been no adequate investigation36 covering the activities of women in the labor world during the last or modern period. We know that after the panic of 1893, which dealt a blow to trade unionism among men, the movement among women was almost at a standstill. We may feel that the international unions have failed to see the light, and have mostly fallen far short of what they might have done in promoting the organization of women workers; but we must acknowledge with thankfulness the fact that they have at least kept alive the tradition of trade unionism among women, and have thus prepared the way for the education and the organization of the women workers by the women workers themselves.
As to legislation, the steady improvement brought about through the limitation of hours, through modern sanitary37 regulations, and through child-labor laws, has all along been supported by a handful of trade-union women, working especially through the national organizations, in which, as members, they made their influence felt.
There were always brave souls among the women, and chivalrous38 souls, here and there among the men, and the struggles made to form and keep alive tiny local unions we shall probably never know, for no complete records exist. The only way in which the ground can be even partially39 covered is by a series of studies in each locality, such as the one made by Miss Lillian Matthews, through her work in San Francisco.
In this connection it must be remembered that those uprisings among women of the last century, were after all local and limited in their effects and range. Most of them bore no relation to national organization of even the trade involved, still less to an all-embracing, national labor organization, such as the American Federation of Labor. In these earlier stages, when organization of both men and women was mainly local, women's influence, when felt at all, was felt strongly within the locality affected40, and it is therefore only there that we hear about it.
Still, twenty-five years ago, the day of national organization had already dawned. To organize a trade on a national scale is at best a slow process, and it naturally takes a much longer time for women to influence and enter into the administrative41 work of a national union, than of a separate local union, which perhaps they have helped to found. They are therefore too apt to lose touch with the big national union, and even with its local branch in their own city. It is almost like the difference between the small home kitchen, with whose possibilities a woman is familiar, and the great food-producing factory, run on a business scale, whose management seems to her something far-removed and unfamiliar42. It was not until 1904, when the National Women's Trade union League was formed out of unions with women members, that women workers, as women, can be said to have begun national organization at all. The account of that body is reserved for another chapter.
Meanwhile as instances of the many determined43 localized efforts among women to raise wages and better conditions, there follow here outlines of the formation of the Working Women's Society in New York, the successful organization of the Laundry Workers in San Francisco, and of the splendid but defeated struggle of the girls in the packing plants of Chicago.
In 1886 a small body of working-women, of whom Leonora O'Reilly was one, began holding meetings on the. East Side of New York City, to inquire into and talk over bad conditions, and see how they could be remedied. They were shortly joined by some women of position, who saw in this spontaneous effort one promising44 remedy, at least for some of the gross evils of underpayment, overwork and humiliation45 suffered by the working-women and girls of New York, in common with those in every industrial center. Among those other women who thus gave their support, and gave it in the truly democratic spirit, were the famous Josephine Shaw Lowell, Mrs. Robert Abbé, Miss Arria Huntingdon and Miss L.S. Perkins, who was the first treasurer46 of the little group. Mrs. Lowell's long experience in public work, and her unusual executive ability were of much value at first. The result of the meetings was the formation of the Working Women's Society. They held their first public meeting on February 2, 1888. In their announcement of principles they declared "the need of a central society, which shall gather together those already devoted to the cause of organization among women, shall collect statistics and publish facts, shall be ready to furnish information and advice, and, above all, shall continue and increase agitation47 on this subject." Among their specific objects were "to found trade organizations, where they do not exist, and to encourage and assist existing labor organizations, to the end of increasing wages and shortening hours." Another object was to promote the passing and the enforcement of laws for the protection of women and children in factories, and yet another the following up of cases of injustice48 in the shops.
The Working Women's Society gave very valuable aid in the feather-workers' strike. Without the Society's backing the women could never have had their case put before the public as it was. Again, it was through their efforts, chiefly, that the law was passed in 1890, providing for women factory inspectors50 in the state of New York. It is stated that this was the first law of the kind in the world, and that the British law, passed shortly afterwards, was founded upon its provisions.
Not limiting itself to helping51 in direct labor organization, and legislation, the Working Women's Society undertook among the more fortunate classes a campaign of sorely needed education, and made upon them, at the same time, a claim for full and active co?peration in the battle for industrial justice.
This was done through the foundation of the Consumers' League of New York, now a branch of the National Consumers' League, which has done good and faithful service in bringing home to many some sense of the moral responsibility of the purchaser in maintaining oppressive industrial conditions, while, on the other hand it has persistently52 striven for better standards of labor legislation. It was through the Consumers' League, and especially through the ability and industry of its notable officer, Josephine Goldmark, that the remarkable53 mass of information on the toxic54 effects of fatigue55, and the legislation to check overwork already in force in other countries was brought together in such complete form, as to enable Louis Brandeis to successfully defend the ten-hour law for women, first for Oregon, and afterwards for Illinois. The Working Women's Society did its work at a time when organization for women was even more unpopular than today. It did much to lessen56 that unpopularity, and to hearten its members for the never-ending struggle. All its agitation told, and prepared the way for the Women's Trade union League, which, a decade later, took up the very same task.
In the year 1900, the status of the steam-laundry-workers of San Francisco was about as low as could possibly be imagined. White men and girls had come into the trade about 1888, taking the place of the Chinese, who had been the first laundrymen on the West Coast. Regarding their treatment, Miss Lillian Ruth Matthews writes:
The conditions surrounding the employment of these first white workers were among those survivals from the eighteenth century, which still linger incongruously in our modern industrial organization. The "living-in" system was the order, each laundry providing board and lodging57 for its employés. The dormitories were wretched places, with four beds in each small room. The food was poor and scanty58, and even though the girls worked till midnight or after, no food was allowed after the evening meal at six o'clock. Half-an-hour only was allowed for lunch. Early in the morning, the women were routed out in no gentle manner and by six o'clock the unwholesome breakfast was over, and every one hard at work…. The girls were physically59 depleted60 from their hard work and poor nourishment61. Their hands were "blistered62 and puffed63, their feet swollen64, calloused65, and sore." One girl said, "Many a time I've been so tired that I hadn't the courage to take my clothes off. I've thrown myself on the bed and slept like dead until I got so cold and cramped66 that at two or three in the morning I'd rouse up and undress and crawl into bed, only to crawl out again at half-past five."
As to wages, under the wretched "living-in" system the girls received but eight dollars and ten dollars a month in money. But even those who lived at home in no instance received more than twenty-five dollars a month, and in many cases widows with children to support would be trying to do their duty by their little ones on seventeen dollars and fifty cents a month.
In the summer of 1900, letters many of them anonymous67, were received both by the State Labor Commissioner68 and by the newspapers. A reporter from the San Francisco Examiner took a job as a laundry-worker, and published appalling69 accounts of miserable70 wages, utter slavery as to hours and degrading conditions generally. Even the city ordinance71 forbidding work after ten at night (!) was found to be flagrantly violated, the girls continually working till midnight, and sometimes till two in the morning.
The first measure of improvement was the passing of a new ordinance, forbidding work after seven in the evening. The workers, however, promptly72 realized that the more humane73 regulation was likely to be as ill enforced as the former one had been unless there was a union to see that it was carried out.
About three hundred of the men organized, and applied74 to the Laundry Workers' International union for a charter. The men did not wish to take the women in, but the executive board of the national organization, to their everlasting75 credit, refused the charter unless the women were taken in as well. Even so, a great many of the women were too frightened to take any steps themselves, as the employers were already threatening with dismissal any who dared to join a union, but the most courageous76 of the girls, with the help of some of the best of the men resolved to go on. Hannah Mahony, now Mrs. Hannah Nolan, Labor Inspector49, took up the difficult task of organizing. So energetic and successful was she, that in sixteen weeks the majority of the girls, as well as the men, had joined the new union. It was all carried out secretly, and only when they felt themselves strong enough did they come out into the open with a demand for a higher wage-scale and shorter hours.
By April 1, 1901, the conditions in the laundry industry were effectually revolutionized. The boarding system was abolished, wages were substantially increased and the working day was shortened; girls who had been receiving $8 and $10 a month were now paid $6 and $10 a week; ten hours was declared to constitute the working day and nine holidays a year were allowed. For overtime77 the employés were to be paid at the rate of time and a half. An hour was to be taken at noon, and any employé violating this rule was to be fined. The fine was devised as an educative reminder78 of the new obligation the laborers79 were under to protect one another, and to raise the standard of the industry upon which they must depend for a living, so fearful was the union that old conditions might creep insidiously80 back upon workers unaccustomed to independence.
The next step was the nine-hour day, and this in good time was obtained too, but only as the result of the power of the strong, well-managed union.
The union was just five years old, when unheard-of disaster fell on San Francisco, the earthquake and fire. Well indeed did the members stand the test. Like their fellow-unionists, the waitresses, they made such good use of their trade-union solidarity81, and showed such courage, wisdom and resource, that the union became even more to the laundry-workers than it had been before this severe trial of its worth. Two-thirds of the steam laundries had been destroyed, likewise the union headquarters. Yet within a week all the camps and bread lines had been visited, and members requested to register at the secretary's home, and called together to a meeting.
Temporary headquarters were found and opened as a relief station, where members were supplied with clothing and shoes. Within another week the nine laundries that had escaped the fire resumed work, the employés going back under the old agreement.
By the time the next April came round nine of the burnt laundries were rebuilt, all on the most modern scale as to design and fittings, and equipped with the very newest machinery82. But still there were only eighteen steam laundries to meet all San Francisco's needs, and therefore business was very brisk. So in April, 1907, it seemed good to the union leaders to try for better terms when renewing their agreement. When they made their demand for the eight-hour day as well as for increased wages, the proprietors83 refused, and eleven hundred workers went out, the entire working force of fourteen laundries. The other four laundries, with but two hundred workers altogether, had the old agreement signed up, and kept on working. The strike lasted eleven weeks, and cost the union over $24,000. Meanwhile the Conciliation85 Committee of the Labor Council, after many conferences and much effort succeeded in arranging a compromise, the working week to be fifty-one hours, with a sliding scale under which the eight-hour day would be reached in April, 1910. Work before seven in the morning was prohibited, all time after five o'clock was considered overtime, and must be paid for at time-and-a-half rate. The passing of the eight-hour law in May, 1911, suggested to some ingenious employers a method of getting behind their own agreement, at least to the extent of utilizing86 their plant to the utmost. They accordingly proposed to free themselves from any obligation to pay overtime, as long as the eight consecutive87 hours were not exceeded. The leaders of the union saw the danger lurking88 under this suggestion, in that it might mean all sorts of irregular hours, or even a two-shift system, involving perpetual night work, and going home from work long distances in the middle of the night. After many months of haggling89, the union won its point. All work after five o'clock was to be paid at overtime rate, with the exception of Monday, when the closing time was made six. This because in all laundries there is apt to be delay in starting work on Monday, as hardly any work can be done until the drivers have come in from their first round, with bundles of soiled linen90. This arrangement remained in force at time of writing.
As regards wages, Miss Matthews estimates the average increase in the twelve years since the Steam Laundry Workers' union was first formed at about thirty per cent. With the exception of the head marker, and the head washer at the one end, each at twenty-two dollars and fifty cents per week, and the little shaker girl on the mangle91 at seven dollars per week at the other, wages range from eighteen dollars down to eight dollars, more than the scale, however, being paid, it is said, to every worker with some skill and experience. Apprentices92 are allowed for in the union agreement.
The union does not permit its members to work at unguarded machinery, hence accidents are rare, and for such as do happen, usually slight ones, like burns, the union officials are inclined to hold the workers themselves responsible.
All of the steam laundries in San Francisco, now thirty-two in number, are unionized, including the laundries operated in one of the largest hotels. The union regards with just pride and satisfaction the fine conditions, short hours and comparatively high wages which its trade enjoys, as well as the improved social standards and the spirit of independence and co?peration which are the fruit of these many years of union activity.
But outside the labor organization, and at once a sad contrast and a possible menace, lie two groups of businesses, the French laundries and the Japanese laundries. The former are mostly conducted on the old, out-of-date lines of a passing domestic industry, housed in made-over washrooms and ironing rooms, equipped with little modern machinery, most of the work being done by hand, and the employés being often the family or at least the relatives of the proprietor84. In their present stage it is quite difficult to unionize these establishments and they do cut prices for the proprietors of the steam laundries.
But both steam laundries and French laundries, both employers and workers, both unionists and non-unionists are at least found in agreement in their united opposition93 to the Japanese laundries, from whose competition all parties suffer, and in this they are backed by the whole of organized labor. The possibility of unionizing the Japanese laundries is not even considered.
The story of the Steam Laundry Workers' union of San Francisco is an encouraging lesson to those toilers in any craft who go on strike. But it also holds for them a warning. A successful strike is a good thing, for the most part, but its gains can be made permanent only if, when the excitement of the strike is over, the workers act up to their principles and keep their union together. The leaders must remember that numbers alone do not make strength, that most of the rank and file, and not unfrequently the leaders too, need the apprenticeship94 of long experience before any union can be a strong organization. The union's choicest gift to its membership lies in the opportunity thus offered to the whole of the members to grow into the spirit of fellowship.
A few words should be said here of another strike among laundry-workers, this time almost entirely women, which although as bravely contested, ended in complete failure. This was the strike of the starchers in the Troy, New York, shirt and collar trade. In the Federal Report on the Condition of Women and Child Wage Earners, Mr. W.P.D. Bliss95 gives a brief account of it. In 1905 the starchers had their wages cut, and at the same time some heavy machinery was introduced. The starchers went out, and organized a union, which over one thousand women joined. They kept up the struggle from June, 1905, throughout a whole summer, autumn and winter till March, 1906. It was up till that time, probably the largest women's strike that had ever taken place in this country and was conducted with uncommon96 persistence97 and steadiness of purpose. They were backed by the international union, and appointing a committee visited various cities, and obtained, it is said, about twenty-five thousand dollars in this way for the support of their members. Many meetings and street demonstrations98 were held in Troy, and much bitter feeling existed between the strikers and the non-union help brought in. The strike at length collapsed99; the firms continued to introduce more machinery, and the girls had to submit. Mr. Bliss concludes: "The Troy union was broken up and since then has had little more than a nominal11 existence."
During the nineties there were a number of efforts made to organize working-women in Chicago. Some unions were organized at Hull100 House, where Mrs. Alzina P. Stevens and Mrs. Florence Kelley were then residents. Mrs. George Rodgers (K. of L.), Mrs. Robert Howe, Dr. Fannie Dickenson, Mrs. Corinne Brown, Mrs. T.J. Morgan, Mrs. Frank J. Pearson, Mrs. Fannie Kavanagh and Miss Lizzie Ford101 were active workers. Miss Mary E. Kenney (Mrs. O'Sullivan), afterwards the first woman organizer under the American Federation of Labor, was another. She was successful in reaching the girls in her own trade (book-binding), besides those in the garment trades and in the shoe factories, also in bringing the need for collective bargaining strongly before social and settlement workers.
Chicago has long been the largest and the most important among the centers of the meat-packing industry. None of the food trades have received more investigation and publicity102, and the need for yet more publicity, and for stricter and yet stricter supervision103 is perpetually being emphasized. But most of the efforts that have been made to awake and keep alive a sense of public rights and responsibility in the conducting of huge institutions like the Chicago packing-plants, have centered on the danger to the health of the consumer through eating diseased or decomposed104 meat. The public cares little, and has not troubled to learn much about the conditions of the workers, without whom there could be no stockyards and no meat-packing industry. Not that some of the investigators105 have not tried to bring this point forward. It was the chief aim of Upton Sinclair, when he wrote "The Jungle," and yet even he discovered to his dismay that, as he bitterly phrased it, he had hoped to strike at the heart of the American people, and he had only hit them in their stomach.
But that is a story by itself. Let us go back to the brave struggle begun by the women in the packing-plants in the year 1902 to improve their conditions by organizing.
For a great many years prior to this, women had been employed in certain branches of the work, such as painting cans and pasting on labels. But towards the close of the nineties the packers began to put women into departments that had always been staffed by men. So it was when girls began to wield106 the knife that the men workers first began to fear the competition of the "petticoat butchers." The idea of organizing the girls, were they painters or butchers, as a way of meeting this new menace, did not occur to them.
At this time, in the fall of 1902, the oldest and best workers were Irish girls, with all the wit and quickness of their race. Especially was Maggie Condon a favorite and a leader. She was an extremely quick worker. With the temperament107 of an idealist, she took a pride in her work, liked to do it well, and was especially successful in turning out a great amount of work. Quicker and quicker she became till, on the basis of the good wages she was making, she built up dreams of comfort for herself and her family. One of her choicest ambitions was to be able to afford a room of her own. But just so surely as she reached the point where such a luxury would be possible, just so surely would come the cut in wages, and she had to begin this driving of herself all over again. Three times this happened. When her well and hardly earned twenty-two dollars was cut the third time Maggie realized that this was no way to mend matters. The harder she worked, the worse she was paid! And not only was she paid worse, she who as one of the best workers could stand a reduction better than most, but the cut went all down the line, and affected the poorest paid and the slowest workers as well.
Hannah O'Day was not one of the quick ones. Her strength had been too early sapped. There was no child-labor law in Illinois when she should have been at school, and at eleven she was already a wage-earner. Along with the rest she also had suffered from the repeated cuts that the pace-making of the ones at the top had brought about. It was evident that something must be done. Maggie Condon, Hannah O'Day and some of the others, began, first to think, and then to talk over the matter with one another. They knew about the Haymarket trouble. There were rumors108 of a strike the men had once had. They had heard of the Knights of Labor, and wrote to someone, but nothing came of it. So one day, when there was more than usual cause for irritation109 and discouragement, what did Hannah O'Day do but tie a red silk handkerchief to the end of a stick. With this for their banner and the two leaders at their head, a whole troop of girls marched out into Packingtown.
The strike ended as most such strikes of the unorganized, unprepared for, and unfinanced sort, must end, in failure, in the return to work on no better terms of the rank and file, and in the black-listing of the leaders. But the idea of organization had taken root, and this group of Irish girls still clung together. "We can't have a union," said one, "but we must have something. Let us have a club, and we'll call it the Maud Gonne Club." This is touching110 remembrance of the Irish woman patriot111.
Time passed on, and one evening during the winter of 1903 Miss Mary McDowell, of the University of Chicago Settlement, was talking at a union Label League meeting, and she brought out some facts from what she knew of the condition of the women workers in the packing-houses, showing what a menace to the whole of the working world was the underpaid woman. This got into the papers, and Maggie Condon and her sister read it, and felt that here was a woman who understood. And she was in their own district, too.
So it came about that the Maud Gonne Club became slowly transformed into a real union. This took quite a while. The girls interested used to come over once a week to the Settlement, where Michael Donnelly was their tutor and helper. Miss McDowell carefully absented herself, feeling that she wanted the girls to manage their own affairs, until it transpired112 that they wished her to be there, and thought it strange that she should be so punctilious113. After that she attended almost every meeting. When they felt ready, they obtained the charter with eight charter members and were known as Local 183 of the Amalgamated114 Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America. Little by little the local grew in numbers. One July night the meeting was particularly well attended and particularly lively, none the less so that the discussion was carried on to the accompaniment of a violent thunderstorm, the remarks of the excitable speakers being punctuated115 by flashes of lightning and crashes of thunder. The matter under consideration was to parade or not to parade on the coming Labor Day. The anxious question to decide was whether they could by their numbers make an impression great enough to balance the dangers of the individual and risky116 publicity.
The vote was cast in favor of parading. When the day came the affair was an entire success. Two wagons117 gaily118 trimmed were filled with girls in white dresses, carrying banners and singing labor songs. The happy results were seen at subsequent meetings of the union, for after that other girls from other than the Irish group came in fast, peasant girls, wearing their shawls, and colored girls, till, when the union was six months old, it had five hundred members. The initiation119 of the first colored girl was a touching occasion. Hannah O'Day had been present at one of the men's meetings, on an evening when it had been a colored man who at the ceremony of initiation had presented white candidates for membership, and the sense of universal brotherhood had then come over her as a sort of revelation. And there were others who felt with her. One night, Hannah being doorkeeper at her own union meeting, a colored girl applied to be admitted. Hannah called out: "A colored sister is at the door; what'll I do with her." It was the young president herself, Mollie Daley, though she had been brought up to think of colored folks as "trash," who, with a disregard of strict parliamentary law, but with a beautiful cordiality, broke in with: "I say, admit her at once, and let yez give her a hearty120 welcome." The girl who was very dark, but extremely handsome, had been not a little nervous over the reception that might await her. She was quite overcome when she found herself greeted with hearty applause.
On another occasion, on the question being asked from the ritual: "Any grievances122?" a sensitive colored girl arose, and said a Polish girl had called her names. The Polish girl defended herself by saying: "Well, she called me Polak, and I won't stand for that." The president summoned them both to the front. "Ain't you ashamed of yourselves?" She proceeded: "Now shake and make up, and don't bring your grievances here, unless they're from the whole shop."
The girls had good training in union principles from the first, so that if their phrases were sometimes a trifle crude, they were none the less the expression of genuine good sense. For instance, some complaint would be brought forward, and in the early days the question would come: "Is this your own kick, or is it all of our kick?" A sound distinction to make, quite as sound as when later on, the officers having learned the formal phrases, they would put it in another way, and say: "Is this a private grievance121 or is it a collective grievance?"
Instead of the old hysterical123 getting mad, and laying down their tools and walking out, when things did not go right, grievances were now taken to the union, and discussed, and if supported by the body, taken to the foreman and managers by the business agent, Maud Sutter.
From the beginning the women delegates from Local 183 to the Packing
Trades Council of Chicago were on an equality with the men, and girl
delegates attended the convention of the National Association at
Cincinnati and also at St. Louis.
It is sad to record that through no fault of their own, the girls' organization met an early downfall. It passed out of existence after the stockyards' strike of 1904, being inevitably involved in the defeat of the men, and going down with them to disaster.
The Irish leadership that produced such splendid results, is now, in any case, not there to be called upon, as the girls now employed in the packing-plants of Chicago are practically all immigrant girls from eastern Europe. When the present system of unorganized labor in the trade is abolished, as some day it must be, it will only be through a fresh beginning among an altogether different group, that it will be possible to reach the women.
But the spirit that permeated124 Local 183 has never wholly died in the hearts of those who belonged to it, and it springs up now and then in quarters little expected, calling to remembrance Maggie Condon's reason for pushing the union of which she was a charter member and the first vice-president. "Girls, we ought to organize for them that comes after us."
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1
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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federation
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| n.同盟，联邦，联合，联盟，联合会 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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clogged
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| （使）阻碍( clog的过去式和过去分词 )； 淤滞 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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affiliation
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| n.联系，联合 | |
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nominally
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| 在名义上，表面地； 应名儿 | |
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nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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accruing
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| v.增加( accrue的现在分词 )；（通过自然增长）产生；获得；（使钱款、债务）积累 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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amendment
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| n.改正，修正，改善，修正案 | |
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suffrage
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| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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accredited
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| adj.可接受的；可信任的；公认的；质量合格的v.相信( accredit的过去式和过去分词 )；委托；委任；把…归结于 | |
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retail
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| v./n.零售；adv.以零售价格 | |
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endorsement
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| n.背书；赞成，认可，担保；签(注)，批注 | |
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emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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24
Amended
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| adj. 修正的 动词amend的过去式和过去分词 | |
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25
bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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26
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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27
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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gatherings
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| 聚集( gathering的名词复数 )； 收集； 采集； 搜集 | |
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30
makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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32
affiliated
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| adj. 附属的, 有关连的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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34
jersey
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| n.运动衫 | |
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35
loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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36
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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37
sanitary
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| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
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38
chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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39
partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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40
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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41
administrative
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| adj.行政的，管理的 | |
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42
unfamiliar
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| adj.陌生的，不熟悉的 | |
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43
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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44
promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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45
humiliation
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| n.羞辱 | |
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46
treasurer
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| n.司库，财务主管 | |
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47
agitation
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| n.搅动；搅拌；鼓动，煽动 | |
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48
injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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49
inspector
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| n.检查员，监察员，视察员 | |
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50
inspectors
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| n.检查员( inspector的名词复数 )；（英国公共汽车或火车上的）查票员；（警察）巡官；检阅官 | |
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51
helping
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| n.食物的一份&adj.帮助人的，辅助的 | |
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52
persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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53
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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54
toxic
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| adj.有毒的，因中毒引起的 | |
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55
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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56
lessen
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| vt.减少，减轻；缩小 | |
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57
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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58
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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59
physically
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| adj.物质上，体格上，身体上，按自然规律 | |
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60
depleted
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| adj. 枯竭的, 废弃的 动词deplete的过去式和过去分词 | |
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61
nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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62
blistered
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| adj.水疮状的，泡状的v.（使）起水泡( blister的过去式和过去分词 )；（使表皮等）涨破，爆裂 | |
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63
puffed
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| adj.疏松的v.使喷出( puff的过去式和过去分词 )；喷着汽（或烟）移动；吹嘘；吹捧 | |
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64
swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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65
calloused
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| adj.粗糙的，粗硬的，起老茧的v.（使）硬结，（使）起茧( callous的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）冷酷无情 | |
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66
cramped
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| a.狭窄的 | |
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67
anonymous
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| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
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68
commissioner
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| n.（政府厅、局、处等部门）专员，长官，委员 | |
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69
appalling
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| adj.骇人听闻的，令人震惊的，可怕的 | |
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70
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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71
ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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72
promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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73
humane
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| adj.人道的，富有同情心的 | |
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74
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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75
everlasting
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| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
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76
courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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77
overtime
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| adj.超时的，加班的；adv.加班地 | |
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78
reminder
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| n.提醒物，纪念品；暗示，提示 | |
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79
laborers
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| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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80
insidiously
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| 潜在地，隐伏地，阴险地 | |
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81
solidarity
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| n.团结；休戚相关 | |
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82
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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83
proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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84
proprietor
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| n.所有人；业主；经营者 | |
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85
conciliation
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| n.调解，调停 | |
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86
utilizing
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的现在分词 ) | |
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87
consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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88
lurking
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| 潜在 | |
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89
haggling
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| v.讨价还价( haggle的现在分词 ) | |
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90
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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91
mangle
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| vt.乱砍，撕裂，破坏，毁损，损坏，轧布 | |
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92
apprentices
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| 学徒，徒弟( apprentice的名词复数 ) | |
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93
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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94
apprenticeship
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| n.学徒身份；学徒期 | |
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95
bliss
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| n.狂喜，福佑，天赐的福 | |
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96
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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97
persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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98
demonstrations
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| 证明( demonstration的名词复数 )； 表明； 表达； 游行示威 | |
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99
collapsed
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| adj.倒塌的 | |
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100
hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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101
Ford
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| n.浅滩，水浅可涉处；v.涉水，涉过 | |
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102
publicity
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| n.众所周知，闻名；宣传，广告 | |
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103
supervision
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| n.监督，管理 | |
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104
decomposed
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| 已分解的，已腐烂的 | |
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105
investigators
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| n.调查者，审查者( investigator的名词复数 ) | |
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106
wield
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| vt.行使，运用，支配；挥，使用(武器等) | |
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107
temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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108
rumors
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| n.传闻( rumor的名词复数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷v.传闻( rumor的第三人称单数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷 | |
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109
irritation
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| n.激怒，恼怒，生气 | |
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110
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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111
patriot
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| n.爱国者，爱国主义者 | |
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112
transpired
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| （事实，秘密等）被人知道( transpire的过去式和过去分词 )； 泄露； 显露； 发生 | |
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113
punctilious
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| adj.谨慎的，谨小慎微的 | |
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114
amalgamated
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| v.（使）（金属）汞齐化( amalgamate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）合并；联合；结合 | |
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115
punctuated
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| v.（在文字中）加标点符号，加标点( punctuate的过去式和过去分词 )；不时打断某事物 | |
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116
risky
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| adj.有风险的，冒险的 | |
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117
wagons
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| n.四轮的运货马车( wagon的名词复数 )；铁路货车；小手推车 | |
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118
gaily
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| adv.欢乐地，高兴地 | |
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119
initiation
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| n.开始 | |
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120
hearty
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| adj.热情友好的；衷心的；尽情的，纵情的 | |
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121
grievance
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| n.怨愤，气恼，委屈 | |
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122
grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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123
hysterical
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| adj.情绪异常激动的，歇斯底里般的 | |
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124
permeated
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| 弥漫( permeate的过去式和过去分词 )； 遍布； 渗入； 渗透 | |
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