Therefore in our civilized world, where the majority of the people, amidst terrible privations, perform hated labours unnecessary to themselves, the greater number of men are in a slavery based on the threat of being deprived of their existence. Of what, then, does this slavery consist? Wherein lies this power of threat?
In olden times the means of subjugation4 and the threat to kill were plain and obvious to all: the primitive5 means of enslaving men then consisted in a direct threat to kill with the sword.
An armed man said to an unarmed, “I can kill thee, as thou hast seen I have done to thy brother, but I do not want to do it: I will spare thee,—first, because it is
not agreeable for me to kill thee; secondly6, because, as well for me as for thee, it will be more convenient that thou shouldst labour for me than that I should kill thee. Therefore do all I order thee to do, but know that, if thou refusest, I will take thy life.”
So the unarmed man submitted to the armed one and did everything he was ordered to do. The unarmed man laboured, the armed threatened. This was that personal slavery which appeared first among all nations, and which still exists among primitive races.
This means of enslaving always begins the work; but when life becomes more complicated it undergoes a change. With the complication of life such a method presents great inconveniences to the oppressor. Before he can appropriate the labour of the weaker he must feed and clothe them and keep them at work, and so their number remains7 small; and, besides, this compels the slave-holder to remain continually with the slaves, driving them to work by the threat of murdering them. And thus another means of subjugation is developed.
Five thousand years ago (according to the Bible) this novel, convenient, and clever means of oppression was discovered by Joseph the Beautiful.
It is similar to that employed now in the menageries for taming restive8 horses and wild beasts.
It is hunger!
This contrivance is thus described in the Bible (Genesis xli., 48–57):—
And he (Joseph) gathered up all the food of the seven years, which were in the land of Egypt, and laid up the food in the cities: the food of the field, which was round about every city, laid he up in the same.
And Joseph gathered corn as the sand of the sea, very much, until he left numbering; for it was without number.
And the seven years of plenteousness, that was in the land of Egypt, were ended.
And the seven years of dearth9 began to come, according as Joseph had said: and the dearth was in all lands; but in all the land of Egypt, there was bread.
And when all the land of Egypt was famished10, the people cried to Pharaoh for bread: and Pharaoh said unto all the Egyptians, Go unto Joseph; what he said to you, do.
And the famine was over all the face of the earth: And Joseph opened all the storehouses, and sold unto
the Egyptians; and the famine waxed sore in the land of Egypt.
And all countries came into Egypt to Joseph for to buy corn; even because that the famine was so sore in all lands.
Joseph, making use of the primitive means of enslaving men by the threat of the sword, gathered corn during the years of plenty in expectation of years of famine which generally follow years of plenty,—men know all this without the dreams of Pharaoh,—and then by the pangs11 of hunger he made all the Egyptians and the inhabitants of the surrounding countries slaves to Pharaoh more securely and conveniently. And when the people began to be famished, he arranged matters so as to keep them in his power forever.
(Genesis xlvii., 13–26.) And there was no bread in all the land; for the famine was very sore, so that the land of Egypt and all the land of Canaan fainted by reason of the famine.
And Joseph gathered up all the money that was found in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, for the corn which they bought: and Joseph brought the money into Pharaoh's house.
And when money failed in the land of Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, all the Egyptians came unto Joseph, and said, Give us bread: for why should we die in thy presence? for the money faileth. And Joseph said, Give your cattle; and I will give you for your cattle, if money fail. And they brought their cattle unto Joseph: and Joseph gave them bread in exchange for horses, and for the flocks, and for the cattle of the herds12, and for the asses13: and he fed them with bread for all their cattle for that year.
When that year was ended, they came unto him the second year, and said unto him, We will not hide it from my Lord, how that our money is spent; my lord also hath our herds of cattle; there is not ought left in the sight of my lord, but our bodies, and our lands: Wherefore shall we die before thine eyes, both we and our land? buy us and our land for bread, and we and our land will be servants unto Pharaoh: and give us seed, that we may live, and not die, and that the land be not desolate14. And Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh; for the Egyptians sold every man his field, because the famine prevailed over them: so the land became Pharaoh's. And as for the people, he removed them
to cities from one end of the borders of Egypt even to the other end thereof.
Only the lands of the priests bought he not; for the priests had a portion assigned them of Pharaoh, and did eat their portion which Pharaoh gave them: wherefore they sold not their lands.
Then Joseph said unto the people, Behold15, I have bought you this day and your land for Pharaoh: lo, here is seed for you, and ye shall sow the land. And it shall come to pass in the increase, that ye shall give the fifth part unto Pharaoh, and four parts shall be your own, for seed of the field, and for your food, and for them of your households, and for food for your little ones.
And they said, Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the sight of my lord, and we will be Pharaoh's servants.
And Joseph made it a law over the land of Egypt unto this day, that Pharaoh should have the fifth part; except the land of the priests only, which became not Pharaoh's.
Formerly16, in order to appropriate labour, Pharaoh had to use violence towards them; but now, when the stores and the land belonged to Pharaoh, he had only to keep these stores by force, and hunger compelled the men to labour for him.
All the land now belonged to Pharaoh, and he had all the stores (which were taken away from the people); and therefore, instead of driving them to work individually by the sword, he had only to keep food from them and they were enslaved, not by the sword, but by hunger.
In a year of scarcity17, all men may be starved to death at Pharaoh's will; and in a year of plenty, all may be killed who, from casual misfortunes, have no stores of corn.
Thus comes into operation the second means of enslaving, not directly with the sword,—that is, by the strong man driving the weak one to labour under threat of killing18 him,—but by the strong one having taken away from the weak the stores of corn which, keeping by the sword, he compels the weak to work for.
Joseph said to the hungry men, “I could starve you to death, because I have the corn; but I will spare your lives, but only under the condition that you do all I order you for the food which I will give you.” For the first means of enslaving, the oppressor only needs soldiers to ride to and fro among the inhabitants, and make them fulfil the requirements of their master under threat of death. And thus the oppressor has only to
pay his soldiers. But with the second means, besides the soldiers, the oppressor must have different assistants for keeping and protecting the land and stores from the starving people.
These are the Josephs and their stewards19 and distributors. And the oppressor has to reward them, and to give Joseph a dress of brocade, a gold ring, and servants, and corn and silver to his brothers and relatives. Besides this, from the very nature of the second means, not only the stewards and their relations, but all who have stores of corn become participators in this violence, just as by the first means, based upon immediate20 force, every one who has arms becomes a partner in tyranny, so by this means, based upon hunger, every one who has stores of provision shares in it, and has power over those who have no stores.
The advantage of this method over the former consists, first and chiefly, in the fact that the oppressor need no longer compel the workmen to do his will by force, for they themselves come to him and sell themselves to him; secondly, in the circumstance that fewer men escape from his violence. The drawback is, that he has to employ a greater number of men. For the oppressed the advantage of it consists in the fact that they are no longer exposed to rough violence but are left to themselves; and can always hope to pass from being the oppressed to becoming oppressors in their turn, which by fortunate circumstances they sometimes really do. The drawback for them is, that they can never escape from participating in the oppression of others.
This new means of enslaving generally comes into operation together with the old one; and the oppressor lessens21 the one and increases the other according to his desires. But this does not fully22 satisfy the man who wishes to take away as much as possible of the products of the labour of as many working-people as he can find, and to enslave as many men as possible; and, therefore, a third means of oppression is evolved.
This is the slavery of taxation23, and, like the second, it is based upon hunger; but to the means of subduing24 men by depriving them of bread is added the deprivation25 of other necessaries.
The oppressor requires from the slaves so much of the money he himself has coined, that, in order to obtain it, the slaves are compelled to sell not only stores of corn in greater quantity than the fifth part which was fixed26 by Joseph, but the first necessaries of life as well,—meat, skins, wool, clothes, firewood, even their buildings; and
therefore the oppressor always keeps his slaves in his power, not only by hunger, but by thirst, cold and other privations.
And thus the third means of slavery comes into operation, a monetary27, tributary28 one, consisting in the oppressor saying to the oppressed, “I can do with each of you just what I like; I can kill and destroy you by taking away the land by which you earn your living; I can, with this money which you must give me, buy all the corn upon which you feed, and sell it to strangers, and at any time annihilate29 you by starvation; I can take from you all that you have,—your cattle, your houses, your clothes; but it is neither convenient nor agreeable for me to do so, and therefore I let you alone, to work as you please; only give me so much of the money which I demand of you, either as a poll-tax, or according to your land or the quantity of your food and drink, or your clothes or your houses. Give me this money, and do what you like among yourselves, but know that I shall neither protect nor maintain widows nor orphans30 nor invalids31 nor old people, nor such as have been burned out: I shall only protect the regular circulation of this money. This right will always be mine, to protect only those who regularly give me the fixed number of these pieces of money: as to how or where you get it, I shall not in the least trouble myself.” And so the oppressor distributes these pieces of money as an acknowledgement that his demand has been complied with.
The second method of enslaving consisted in this, that, having taken away the fifth part of the harvest, and collected stores of corn, Pharaoh, besides the personal slavery by the sword, received, by his assistants, the possibility of dominion32 over the working-people during the time of famine, and over some of them during misfortunes which happen to them.
The third method consists in this: Pharaoh requires from the working-people more money than the value of the fifth part of corn which he took from them; he and his assistants get a new means of dominion over the working-class, not merely during the famine and their casual misfortunes, but permanently33.
By the second method, men retain some stores of corn which help them to bear indifferent harvests and casual misfortunes without going into slavery; but by the third, when there are more demands, the stores, not of corn only but of all other necessaries of life are taken away from them, and at the first misfortune a workman, having neither stores of corn nor any other stores which he
might exchange for corn, falls into slavery to those who have money.
To set the first in motion an oppressor need have only soldiers, and share the booty with them; for the second, besides the protectors of the land and the stores, he must have collectors and clerks for the distribution of the corn; for the third, besides the soldiers for keeping the land and his property, he must have collectors of taxes, assessors of direct taxation, supervisors34, custom-house clerks, managers of money, and coiners of it.
The organization of the third method is much more complicated than that of the second. By the second, the getting in of corn may be leased out, as was done in olden times and is still the custom in Turkey; but by putting taxes on men there is need of a complicated administration, which has to ensure the right levying35 of the taxes. And therefore by the third method the oppressor has to share the plunder36 with a still greater number of men than by the second; besides, according to the very nature of the thing, all the men of the same or of the foreign country who possess money become sharers with the oppressed.
The advantage of the third method over the first and second consists chiefly in the following fact: that by it there is no need to wait for a year of scarcity, as in the time of Joseph, but years of famine are established forever, and (whilst by the second method the part of the labour which is taken away depends upon the harvest, and cannot be augmented37 ad libitum, because if there is no corn, there is nothing to take) by the new monetary method the requirement can be brought to any desired limit, for the demand for money can always be satisfied, because the debtor38, to satisfy it, must sell his cattle, clothes, or houses. The chief advantage to the oppressor of this method is that he can take away the greatest quantity of labour in the most convenient way; for a money-tax, like a screw, may easily and conveniently be turned to the utmost limit, and golden eggs be obtained though the bird that lays them is all but dead.
Another of its advantages for the oppressor is that its violence reaches all those also who, by possessing no land, formerly escaped from it by giving only a part of their labour for corn; whereas now, besides that part which they give for corn, they must now give another part for taxes. A drawback for the oppressor is that he has to share the plunder with a still greater number of men, not only with his direct assistants, but also with all those men of his own country, and even of foreign
countries, who may have the money which is demanded from the slaves.
Its advantage for the oppressed is only that he is allowed greater independence than under the second method; he may live where he chooses, do what he likes; he may sow or not sow; he has to give no account of his labour; and if he has money, he may consider himself entirely39 free, and constantly hope, though only for a time, to obtain not only an independent position, but even to become an oppressor himself, when he has money to spare.
The drawback for the oppressed is, that on a general average their situation becomes much worse, and they are deprived of the greater part of the products of their labour, because the number of those who utilize40 their labour has increased, and therefore the burden of keeping them falls upon a smaller number of men.
This third method of enslaving men is also very old, and comes into operation with the former two without entirely excluding them.
These three methods of enslaving men have always been in operation.
They may all be compared to screws which secure the board laid on the work-people which presses them down. The fundamental, or middle screw, without which the other screws could not hold, which is first screwed up, and which is never slackened, is the screw of personal slavery, the enslaving of some men by others under threat of slaughter41; the second, which is screwed up after the first, is that of enslaving men by taking away the land and stores of provisions from them, such alienation42 being maintained by the threat to murder; and the third screw is slavery enforced by the requirement of certain money taxes; and this demand is also maintained under threat of murder.
These three screws are made fast, and it is only when one of them is tightened43 more that the others are slackened. For the complete enslavement of the workman, all three are necessary; and in our society, all three are in operation together. The first method of personal slavery under threat of murder by the sword has never been abolished, and never will be so long as there is any oppression, because every kind of oppression is based on this alone.
We are all quite sure that personal slavery is abolished in our civilized world; that the last remnant of it has been annihilated44 in America and in Russia, and that it is only among the barbarians45 that real slavery exists, and
that with us it is no longer in being. We forget only one small circumstance,—those hundreds of millions of standing46 troops without which no state exists, and with the abolition47 of which all the economical organization of each state would inevitably48 fall to pieces. Yet what are these millions of soldiers but the personal slaves of those who rule them? Are not these men compelled to do the will of their commanders under the threat of torture and death,—a threat often carried out? the difference consisting only in the fact that the submission49 of these slaves is not called slavery, but discipline, and that slaves are slaves from their birth, but soldiers only during a more or less short period of their so-called “service.”
Personal slavery, therefore, is not only not abolished in our civilized world, but, under the system of conscription, it has of late years been confirmed; and it has remained as it has always existed, only slightly changed from its original form. And it cannot but exist, because, so long as there is the enslaving of one man by another there will be this personal slavery too, this slavery which, under the threat of the sword, maintains serfdom, land-ownership, and taxes.
It may be that this slavery of troops is useful, as it is said, for the defence and the glory of the country; but this kind of utility is more than doubtful, because we see how often in the case of unsuccessful wars it serves only for the subjugation and shame of the country. But of the expediency50 of this slavery for maintaining that of the land and taxes there is no question.
If Irish or Russian peasants were to take possession of the land of the proprietors51, troops would be sent to dispossess them. If you build a distillery or a brewery52 and do not pay excise53, then soldiers will be sent to shut it up. Refuse to pay taxes, and the same thing will happen to you.
The second screw is the method of enslaving men by taking away from them their land and their stores of provisions. This method has also always been in existence wherever men are oppressed; and, whatever changes it may undergo, it is everywhere in operation.
Sometimes all the land belongs to the sovereign, as in Turkey, and there one-tenth is given to the state treasury54. Sometimes a part of the land belongs to the sovereign, and taxes are raised on it. Sometimes all the land belongs to a few people and is let out for labour, as in England. Sometimes more or less large portions of land belong to the land-owners, as in Russia, Germany, and France. But wherever there is enslaving there exists
also the appropriation55 of the land by the oppressor, and this screw is slackened or tightened only according to the condition of the other screws.
Thus, in Russia, when personal slavery was extended to the majority of the working-people there was no need of land-slavery; but the screw of personal slavery was slackened in Russia only when the screws of land and tax slavery were tightened. Only when the government had appropriated the land and divided it among private individuals, and had instituted money payments and taxation, did it give the peasants personal freedom.
In England, for instance, land-slavery is pre-eminently in operation, and the question about the nationalizing of the land consists only in the screw of taxation being tightened in order that the screw of land appropriation may be slackened.
The third method of enslaving men, by taxes, has also been in operation for ages; and in our days, with the extension of uniform standards of money and the strengthening of state powers it has become an especially powerful influence.
This method is so developed in our days that it tends to be a substitute for the second method of enslaving,—the land monopoly.
It is obvious from the state of the political economy of all Europe, that it is by the tightening56 of this screw that the screw of land slavery is slackened.
In our own lifetime we have witnessed in Russia two transformations57 of slavery. When the serfs were liberated59, and their landlords retained the right to the greater part of the soil, the landlords were afraid they would lose their power; but experience has shown that having let go the whole chain of personal slavery, they had only to seize another,—that of the land. A peasant was short of corn; he had not enough to live on. The landlord had land and stores of corn: and therefore the peasant still remained the same slave.
Another transformation58 was caused by the government screw of taxation being pressed home. The majority of working-people, having no stores, were obliged to sell themselves to their landlords and to the factories. This new form of oppression held the people still tighter, so that nine-tenths of the Russian working-people are still working for their landlords and in the factories to pay these taxes. This is so obvious, that, if the government were to remit60 taxation for one year only, all labour would be stopped in the fields of the landlords, and in the factories. Nine-tenths of the Russian people hire themselves
out during and before the collection of taxes.
All these three methods have never ceased to operate, and are still in operation, but people are inclined to ignore them or to invent new excuses for them. And, what is most remarkable61 of all is, that the very means on which everything is based, that screw which is screwed up tighter than all others, which holds everything at the moment in question, is not noticed so long as it holds. When in the ancient world the entire economical order was upheld by personal slavery, the greatest intellects did not notice it. To Plato, as well as to Xenophon, and Aristotle, and to the Romans, it seemed that it could not be otherwise, and that slavery was an unavoidable and natural result of wars, without which the existence of mankind was inconceivable. Similarly, in the Middle Ages, and till recently, people did not apprehend62 the meaning of land-ownership, on which depended the entire economical organization of their time.
So also, at present, no one sees or wants to see, that in our time the slavery of the majority of the people depends on taxes collected by the government from its own land slaves, taxes collected by administration and the troops,—by the very same troops which are maintained by these taxes.
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1
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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restive
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| adj.不安宁的，不安静的 | |
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dearth
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| n.缺乏，粮食不足，饥谨 | |
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famished
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| adj.饥饿的 | |
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pangs
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| 突然的剧痛( pang的名词复数 )； 悲痛 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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asses
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| n. 驴，愚蠢的人，臀部 adv. (常用作后置)用于贬损或骂人 | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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stewards
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| （轮船、飞机等的）乘务员( steward的名词复数 )； （俱乐部、旅馆、工会等的）管理员； （大型活动的）组织者； （私人家中的）管家 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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lessens
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| 变少( lessen的第三人称单数 )； 减少（某事物） | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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deprivation
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| n.匮乏；丧失；夺去，贫困 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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monetary
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| adj.货币的，钱的；通货的；金融的；财政的 | |
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tributary
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| n.支流；纳贡国；adj.附庸的；辅助的；支流的 | |
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annihilate
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| v.使无效；毁灭；取消 | |
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orphans
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| 孤儿( orphan的名词复数 ) | |
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invalids
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| 病人，残疾者( invalid的名词复数 ) | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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permanently
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| adv.永恒地，永久地，固定不变地 | |
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supervisors
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| n.监督者，管理者( supervisor的名词复数 ) | |
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levying
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| 征（兵）( levy的现在分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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Augmented
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| adj.增音的 动词augment的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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debtor
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| n.借方，债务人 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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utilize
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| vt.使用，利用 | |
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slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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42
alienation
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| n.疏远；离间；异化 | |
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43
tightened
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| 收紧( tighten的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）变紧； （使）绷紧； 加紧 | |
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annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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46
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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47
abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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expediency
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| n.适宜；方便；合算；利己 | |
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51
proprietors
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| n.所有人，业主( proprietor的名词复数 ) | |
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brewery
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| n.啤酒厂 | |
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53
excise
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| n.(国产)货物税；vt.切除，删去 | |
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54
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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55
appropriation
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| n.拨款，批准支出 | |
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56
tightening
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| 上紧，固定，紧密 | |
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57
transformations
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| n.变化( transformation的名词复数 )；转换；转换；变换 | |
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58
transformation
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| n.变化；改造；转变 | |
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59
liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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60
remit
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| v.汇款，汇寄；豁免（债务），免除（处罚等） | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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apprehend
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| vt.理解，领悟，逮捕，拘捕，忧虑 | |
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