A new impulse has lately been given to the study of American Antiquities4. A brief account of recent investigations5 carried on in a portion of the West and South will show that we possess much that is interesting, and which will throw light on a neglected branch of aboriginal6 history and ethnology.
Every enquirer7 into the origin and purposes of the monuments and ancient remains8 of the Mississippi valley has regretted the limited number and poorly attested9 character of the facts, of which the public are in possession, respecting them. The practical investigations made from time to time by various individuals, have not been sufficiently10 thorough and extensive, nor have they developed sufficient data to warrant or sustain any definite or satisfactory conclusions. They have served rather to provoke enquiries which they could in no degree satisfy,[4] than to afford information on the subject with which they were connected.
It was under a strong sense of the deficiencies in our stock of information in this branch of knowledge, that two gentlemen of Chillicothe, Ohio, Dr. Davis and Mr. E.G. Squier, undertook the exploration of the ancient remains which abound11 in the state of Ohio, and particularly of those in the valley of the Scioto river.
It is known that there exists in this region vast numbers of mounds12, of various dimensions, and extensive embankments of earth, enclosing in some instances many acres of ground. Beside these there are ditches, walls, causeways and other works of a greater or less extent. The examination of these, by opening the mounds, and making accurate surveys of the other works constitute the labors14 of these gentlemen, some of the results of which may be stated in anticipation15 of a full account which will shortly appear.
Though their labors at first promised to end in increased doubt and uncertainty16, they were abundantly rewarded as their enquiries progressed. Out of confusion, system began to develope itself, and what seemed accidents, were found to be characteristics. What was regarded as anomalous17, was recognized as a type and feature of a class, and apparent coincidences became proofs of design.
For instance, it was remarked among the numerous tumuli opened, that certain ones were stratified, while others were homogeneous in their composition. Further observation showed that stratified tumuli occupy a certain fixed18 position with regard to other works, which the unstratified tumuli do not. Still further examinations demonstrated that the contents of those respective tumuli are radically19 and invariably different. Here then was established: 1st. That the mounds are not, as is generally supposed, identical in character and purpose. 2d. That one class occupies a fixed position with regard to works of a different character, the design of which is to be[5] determined20, to some degree, by the peculiarities21 and the contents of this description of mounds, etc.
It will be seen, at once, that a close observation of facts of this kind is absolutely essential, to arrive at any reasonable conclusions, regarding the purposes of these ancient structures, their origin, or the character or customs of the people by whom they were built. The investigations of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, were therefore conducted so as to permit the escape of no fact which might tend to elucidate22 the mystery in which our antiquities are shrouded23. The excavations24 were made under their personal direction, and the results may be briefly25 stated, without detailing the facts in support of each conclusion, as follows.
The number of enclosures or earthworks which have been surveyed by them, and of which they have taken careful admeasurements, exceeds ninety. The number of tumuli which have been excavated26 and their characteristics noted27, amounts to one hundred and fifteen.
Of the first class of works, it has been sufficiently demonstrated, that a small proportion were intended for works of defence; that another portion were sacred places, or in some way connected with religious or superstitious28 rites29, while a third and much the larger number are entirely30 inexplicable31 in our present state of information.
The tumuli are divided into three grand classes, which are broadly marked in the aggregate32, though there are individual instances of an anomalous character. These are:
1st. Tumuli of sepulture, each containing a single skeleton enclosed in a rude, wooden coffin33, or an envelope of bark or matting, and occurring in isolated34 or detached groups.
2d. Tumuli of sacrifice, containing symmetrical altars of stone or burnt clay, occurring within or in the immediate35 vicinity of enclosures, and always stratified.[6]
3d. Places of observation, or mounds raised upon elevated or commanding positions.
Within these monuments have been found implements36 and ornaments37 of silver, copper38, lead, stone, ivory and pottery39, fashioned into a thousand forms, and evincing a skill in art, to which the existing race of Indians, at the time of their discovery, could not approach. Marine40 shells, mica41 from the primitive42 regions, native copper from the shores of lake Superior, galena from the upper Mississippi, cetacean teeth, pearls and instruments of obsidian43, show the extent of communication and intercourse44 had by the authors of these ancient works. Sculptures of animals, birds and reptiles45 have been found in great numbers and variety, exhibiting a skill which few could now surpass. Also, sculptures of the human head, disclosing most probably the character of the physiognomy, as well as the manner of adjusting the hair, the head dress and ornaments of the mound13-builders. Careful admeasurements of the earth works which abound in the Ohio valley, have been made by the gentlemen alluded46 to, in which the interesting fact has been developed, that many of them are perfect circles and squares, and hence that the people by whom they were constructed had some means of determining angles and of constructing circles. In some of those earth-heaps, sufficient remains to show that when in a perfect state, they resembled the teocallis or terraced edifices47 of Mexico and Yucatan, though they were composed wholly of wood and earth.
The number of works manifestly connected in some way with their religion, guide us to some estimate of the prominence49 which their superstitions50 occupied, and that a religious system existed among them, in some degree resembling that of the ancient Mexicans. The immense tumuli heaped over the remains of the dead, show the regard which they attached to their chiefs, and the veneration51 in which they held their memory. The number and extent of their remains of all kinds, which occupy[7] the fertile valleys, and which are confined almost entirely to them, indicate that an immense population once existed there, that it was stationary52 and therefore agricultural;[1] and if agricultural and stationary, that a different organization of society, different manners and customs, different impulses and feelings existed among them, than are to be found among the hunter and nomadic53 tribes, discovered by Europeans in possession of the country.
Another class of antiquities has been discovered by these gentlemen, of which we only have the particulars in a letter. These consist of rocks sculptured with figures of men, of birds and animals. They are cut in outline, the lines being from one half to three quarters of an inch deep by about the same width. Only those on the sides of the rocks are visible. Those on the upper or horizontal faces are nearly obliterated54. One represents an elk55 and is said to be very spirited.
What may result from the future researches of Dr. Davis and Mr. Squier, remains to be seen; but sufficient has been developed to show that a people, radically different from the existing race of Indians, once occupied the valley of the Mississippi, and built the singular monuments in which it abounds56. These also show that they were to a certain extent advanced in the arts and civilization. In short that they closely resembled in the character of their structures, ornaments and implements of war and husbandry, the races of Central America; if they were not indeed their progenitors57 or an offshoot from them. Many facts strongly point to such a conclusion and farther observations carefully conducted, will probably enable us to settle the question beyond a doubt.[8]
A detailed59 account of the researches of the gentlemen alluded to, accompanied by numerous engravings representing the implements, ornaments and sculptures, &c., discovered in their excavations;—surveys of the various earth works, forts and enclosures in the Scioto valley, will be given in the second volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, now preparing for publication. They are still actively60 engaged in their labors, and intend, should the facilities be extended them to carry on their operations, to examine every ancient relic61 to be found in Ohio and the adjacent parts, where these remains exist.
Among the explorations which have been carried on in the United States, none possess a greater interest than those of Dr. M.W. Dickeson, in the south western states, chiefly in Mississippi, though in some instances extending to Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas. Dr. Dickeson has laid open or examined one hundred and fifty mounds and tumuli, of various dimensions and collected a vast number of interesting relics62, which illustrate63 the customs and arts of the ancient people who built them. The mounds vary from three to ninety feet in height, and from twelve to three hundred feet in diameter at the base. The Seltzer Town mound contains a superficies of eight acres on its summit. On digging into it vast quantities of human skeletons were found, chiefly with their heads flattened64, and measuring generally six feet in length. Numerous specimens65 of pottery, including finely finished vases filled with pigments66, ashes, ornaments, and beads67, were also found.
The north side of this mound is supported with a wall two feet thick, of sun dried bricks, filled with grass, rushes and leaves. In order to ascertain68 whether this immense tumulus was artificial or not, Dr. Benbrook, sank a shaft69 forty two feet, and found it artificial or made ground to that depth. Immense quantities of bones, both of men and animals, among the latter the head of a huge bear,[9] were thrown out. Other excavations were made in this tumulus with the same result, thus showing it to have been a vast mausoleum or cemetery70 of the ancient race.
The mounds are generally in systems varying from seven to ten, which Dr. Dickeson has divided into six classes as follows: out post, ramparts or walls, telegraphs or look outs, temples, cemeteries71, and tent mounds. The first is seldom more than thirty feet at the base by ten feet high. Their shape varies, presenting sometimes a pyramid, at others a cone72, or rhomboid. Walls surround the second class, which are from ten to fifteen feet in heighth, the same across the top, and from forty to fifty feet at the base.
The "Look out" mounds are seldom under sixty feet high. Of this class, Dr. Dickeson has examined upwards73 of ninety. They are generally on the summit of a hill, overlooking the bottom lands. Here they stand some three hundred feet above the bottom lands, commanding an extensive prospect74, and in some instances one may see the peaks of several systems of mounds in the distance.
The "Temple mounds" are seldom more than twenty feet high, and stratified with ashes, loam75, gravel76, &c. They all have an earthen floor. Dr. Dickeson has, but in a single instant, found a skeleton in these mounds, and in this, he thinks the subject a Choctaw Indian recently placed there. It lay in a horizontal position, differing from the usual mode of burial, which is the sitting posture77.
The "Cemeteries" are oval, and from six to ten feet high, filled with bones, lying east and west, and when incased in sarcophagi, the rows run in the same direction. In some instances Dr. Dickeson found the bones lying in heaps, promiscuously78. These he believes to have been the canaille.
The "Tent or Structure mounds" are small, and a short distance below their surface, fragments of brick and cement are found in great quantities; sometimes skeletons and pottery. Never more than six skeletons are found together, and more care is shown in the burial of these[10] than in the "cemetery mounds." In one instance an angular tumulus was seen by the Doctor, with the corners quite perfect, formed of large bricks, bearing the impression of an extended hand.[2]
Many mounds and tumuli are advantageously situated79 on the tops of ridges80, surrounded with walls. Some of the latter have crumbled81 away, while others remain strong and perpendicular82. In many instances, the walls that surround these groups of mounds, form perfect squares and circles. Dr. Dickeson adds that, "if from the centre of one of these groups a circle were traced, it would strike the centre of each mound, both large and small." They contain numerous fragments of walls, images, pottery, ornaments, etc. etc.
The "Temples" are generally situated among the hills and ravines, with perpendicular escarpments, improved by artificial fortifications. The enclosures often embrace upwards of thirty acres. The great enclosure at "the Trinity" contains upwards of one hundred and fifty acres, and is partially83 faced with sundried brick. Upon the plantation84 of Mr. Chamberlain in Mississippi, the temple is flanked with several bastions, besides squares, parallels, half moons, and ravines with perpendicular escarpments for its defence. The ditches and small lakes are frequently chained for miles and filled with water, intended, the Doctor thinks, for outworks. In these, bricks are found both at the bottom and on the sides. Among the rubbish and vegetable deposits taken from them to put on the land, ornaments, and other relics are found.
Wells and reservoirs, completely walled with burnt clay,[11] are found in Louisiana; near which are "systems," or groups of mounds so regular and strongly fortified85, that they became the retreat of pirates and robbers who infested86 the rivers, greatly disturbing the early settlers, after the massacre87 of the Natchez Indians by the French. The Natchez built large dikes or ditches, and upon the counterscarp piled up huge ramparts, which they made almost impregnable, by having one side flanked by the slope of a hill, surrounded by precipices88. They are sometimes situated on the level "bottoms."[3] In these cases one side invariably faces a creek89 or bayou, or is in its bend, making the creek serve as a formidable ditch, offering a serious impediment to an enemy's approach. The other two sides are protected by parallel walls or half moons, with gateways90 leading to the citadel91. These walls have indications of having been faced with dry masonry92. The east and west corners are generally flanked with a small oval mound.
In these tumuli and mounds numerous ornaments and pottery were found by Dr. Dickeson, buried with the occupants, such as idols93, clay stamps, mica mirrors, stone axes, and arrow heads, silver and copper ornaments, rings, beads of jasper, chalcedony, agate94, &c., similar to those found in Peru and Mexico. Several pearls of great beauty and lustre95, an inch in diameter, have been found. By an examination of the skulls96, Dr. D. discovered that dentistry had been extensively practised by this ancient people, as plugging the teeth, and inserting artificial ones, was common. In one instance, five artificial teeth were found inserted in one subject. Ovens were found containing pottery partially baked, three feet below the surface, with large trees covering them, exhibiting an age of upwards of five hundred years. Magazines of arrow[12] points, in one instance a "wagon97 body full," (about twenty bushels), lying within the space of a few feet. In a small mound in Adams county, Dr. D. found three large jars holding upwards of ten gallons of arrow points elaborately finished; and three similar in dimensions and finish, have lately been received by Dr. Morton, of Philadelphia, from South Carolina. Carvings98 representing the English bull dog, the camel and lama, have been found by Dr. Dickeson, from forty to sixty feet below the surface of the mound. The bricks, to which allusion99 has been made, are of various colors; some of a bright red, others dark brown, various shades of purple and yellow. Forty stamps of baked clay, containing a variety of figures used for stamping their skins. Pieces of coin, two of which found near Natches, had the figure of a bird on one side, and on the reverse an animal.
The pottery found is quite extensive, some mounds have been opened in which were upwards of sixty vases, some quite plain, and others elaborately ornamented101. Of the pottery, Dr. Dickeson has succeeded in getting upwards of a hundred fine specimens to Philadelphia, which are deposited with his other Indian relics and fossils, in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences.
Dr. Dickeson has kindly102 furnished me a catalogue of his collection of relics, from which I have selected the following to give an idea of the extent and variety of the objects found:
6000 Arrow points of jasper, chalcedony, obsidian, quartz103, &c., &c.
150 Arrow points, finely polished, under one inch in length.
25 Arrow points, finely polished, under half an inch in
length.
1600 Unfinished Arrow and Spear points.
250 small stone Axes.
40 Quoits, Weights, &c.
20 Paint mullers.
[13]
10 Corn grinders.
3 large stone Mortars104.
14 small earthen Heads of men, women and boys.
6 stone Statues, erect105 and sitting.
A great variety of personal ornaments of jasper, chalcedony, pottery, beads, pearls, war clubs, war axes, mica mirrors, carved ornaments, arm bracelets106, bone carvings, earthen plates, handled saucers, earthen lamps, a variety of vessels107 for culinary purposes, stone chisels108, two copper medals, the tusk109 of a Mastodon, six feet long, elaborately carved with a serpent and human figures; cylindrical110 tubes of jasper perforated, ornaments in pumice, (lava), seals, bricks, jars, cups and vases in every variety.
In addition to these, Dr. Dickeson has made a collection of upwards of sixty crania of the ancient mound builders, out of many thousand skeletons discovered by him in his several explorations. These possess much interest in an Ethnographic point of view, for the rigid111 test to which all his results have been subjected, have satisfied him that these skulls belong to the ancient race. Like the gentlemen in Ohio, whose labors have been noticed, the Doctor can at once detect the mounds and remains of the ancient, from those of the modern race. Some mounds he has found to be the work of three periods. At the top were the remains of the present race of Indians; digging lower he found these remains accompanied by ancient Spanish relics, of the period of the earliest Spanish visit to these parts; and below these, he discovered the remains and relics of the ancient race.
The inscribed112 tablet discovered in the grave-creek mound, Virginia, and which was noticed by Mr. Schoolcraft in the first volume of the Transactions of the American Ethnological Society, continues to excite much interest. Mr. Jomard of the French Institute, read a second paper on that subject last year, before the Academy of Inscriptions113 and Belles-lettres at Paris, a copy of which[14] he has transmitted to the Society.[4] He distinctly shows, that the letters of this curious inscription114 are identically the same as those of the Libyan on the monument of Thugga,[5] and of the Tuarycks used at this day. It is worthy115 of remark, that Mr. Hodgson in his "Notes on Africa,"[6] arrived at the same conclusion, without the knowledge that Mr. Jomard, some years previously116, had asserted the Libyan character of this inscription, in a first note on the subject.[7] Such a coincidence gives force to the views adopted by both these gentlemen. The results to which the French savant has arrived, in his enquiry into this engraved117 stone or tablet, possess much interest, as it is the only relic yet discovered in North America, of an inscription bearing alphabetic118 characters,[8] which have been satisfactorily identified as such. This Numidian inscription, which title we may now apply to the engraved tablet in question, will be again alluded to, when we come to speak of the philological119 discoveries in Northern Africa, and of the Libyan alphabet.
In conclusion Mr. Jomard observes, that at a remote period the Libyan language was spoken by various tribes in Northern Africa, and that it was a language written[15] with characters, such as we now find on the Thugga edifice48 and other monuments; that it is still written with the same characters, particularly in the vicinity of Fezzan and in the deserts traversed by the Tuarycks, although this method of writing has been to so great an extent supplanted120 by Arabic letters that we must consider the Berber language, the language of Syouah, Sokna, Audjelah, and Gherma, as representing the remains of the ancient Libyan language in use in the most remote period; and finally, that in the interior of America, on a monument of which the age is unknown, but anterior121 to the settlement by Europeans, we find an engraved stone, bearing signs perfectly2 resembling the characters traced by the modern Tuarycks and by their ancestors, upon the rocks of Libya. Mr. Jomard's pamphlet contains an engraved table, in which are given, in parallel columns, the characters on the American tablet, the Tuaryck alphabet, the Thugga characters, and their value in Hebrew and Arabic.
In connexion with this subject it may be added, that M. Berthelot, a learned traveller, states that there exists a striking affinity122 between the names of places and of men in the ancient language of the Canaries and certain Carib words.[9] The contiguity123 of the Canaries to the African continent is such, that we can readily suppose their ancient inhabitants to have had communication with it, whereby the Libyan language became known to them. A new field of enquiry is thus opened to philologists124, and we may here seek for the means to unravel126 one of the most difficult questions connected with the origin of the American race, and the means by which they reached this continent, for we never have been among those who believed that America derived127 the mass of her population, her men and animals, from Asia, by the way of Behring's Straits.
The author of a late work on California, New Mexico, &c., brings to our notice a tribe of Indians known as the[16] Munchies (Mawkeys) or white Indians.[10] "This remarkable128 nation occupies a valley among the Sierra de los Mimbros chain of mountains, upon one of the affluents129 of the river Gila, in the extreme northwestern part of the province of Sonora. They number about eight hundred persons. Their country is surrounded by lofty mountains at nearly every point, is well watered and very fertile. Their dwellings130 are excavated in the hill-sides, and frequently cut in the solid rock. They subsist131 by agriculture, and raise great numbers of horses, cattle and sheep. Among them are many of the arts and comforts of civilized132 life. They spin and weave, and make butter and cheese, with many of the luxuries known to more enlightened nations. Their government is after the patriarchal order, and is purely133 republican in its character. In morals they are represented as honest and virtuous134. In religion they differ but little from other Indians. Their features correspond with those of Europeans, with a fair complexion135 and a form equally if not more graceful136. In regard to their origin, they have lost all knowledge or even tradition; neither do their characters, manners, customs, arts or government savor137 of modern Europe."
Another tribe of Indians called the Navijos, of whom we know but little, except that they have long had a place on the maps, is noticed by the same author. They occupy the country between the Del Norte and the Sierra Anahuac, in the province of Sonora, and have never succumbed138 to Spanish domination. "They possess a civilization of their own. Most of them live in houses built of stone, and cultivate the ground—raising vegetables and grain for a subsistence. They also raise large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep—make butter and cheese, and spin and weave."
The blankets manufactured by these Indians are supe[17]rior in beauty of color, texture139 and durability140 to the fabrics141 of their Spanish neighbors. Their government is in strict accordance with the welfare of the whole community. Dishonesty is held in check by suitable regulations, industry is encouraged by general consent, and hospitality by common practice. As warriors142 they are brave and daring, making frequent and bold excursions into the Spanish settlements, driving off herds143 of cattle, horses and sheep, and spreading terror and dismay on every side. As diplomatists, in imitation of their neighbors, they make and break treaties whenever interest and inclination144 prompts them.[11]
The Navijo country is shut in by high mountains, inaccessible145 from without, except by limited passes through narrow defiles146, well situated for defence on the approach of an invading foe147. Availing themselves of these natural advantages, they have continued to maintain their ground against fearful odds148, nor have they suffered the Spaniards to set foot within their territory as conquerors149.
The relations above given of the Mawkeys and Navijos (pronounced Navihoes, and sometimes so written), correspond with the accounts that from time to time have been brought to us, by hunters and trappers who have occasionally visited them. A few years since there appeared in the newspapers an account of both these tribes, by a trapper. He stated that the Mawkeys had "light, flaxen hair, blue eyes and skins of the most delicate whiteness."[12] I have two other accounts wherein both are described much as before stated. Their manufactures are particularly dwelt upon. Some of them wore shoes, stockings and other garments of their own make. Their stone houses are noticed as well as their large herds of cattle,—also their cultivation150 of fruits and vegetables. They raise[18] cotton, which they manufacture into cloth, as well as wool. Fire arms are unknown to them. "Their dress is different from that of other Indians, and from their Spanish neighbors. Their shirts, coats and waistcoats are made of wool, and their small clothes and gaiters of deer skin."
These accounts might be considered fanciful, had we not high authority which fully58 corroborates151 them. Humboldt says, "The Indians between the rivers Gila and Colorado, form a contrast with the wandering and distrustful Indians of the savannas152 to the east of New Mexico. Father Garces visited the country of the Moqui, and was astonished to find there an Indian town with two great squares, houses of several stories, and streets well laid out, and parallel to one another. The construction of the edifices of the Moqui is the same with that of the Casas grandes on the banks of the Gila."[13]
In Mr. Farnham's late work on California, is a notice of the Navijos from Dr. Lyman's report. The author begins by saying, that "they are the most civilized of all the wild Indians of North America."[14] Their extensive cultivation of maize153 and all kinds of vegetables—their rearing of "large droves of magnificent horses, equal to the finest horses of the United States in appearance and value," and their large flocks of sheep are also noticed. From the fleece of the sheep which is long and coarse resembling mohair, "they manufacture blankets of a texture so firm and heavy as to be perfectly impervious154 to water." They make a variety of colors with which they dye their cloths, besides weaving them in stripes and figures. They are constantly at war with the Mexicans, but stand in fear of the American trappers, with whom[19] they have had some severe skirmishes, which resulted much to their disadvantage.[15]
It is believed by Baron155 Humboldt and by others, that in the Navijos and Mawkeys we see the descendants of the same race of Indians which Cortez and the Spanish conquerors found in Mexico, in a semi-civilized state. We are unable to state whether any affinity exists between their language and the other Mexican dialects, as no vocabularies have been collected. The whiteness of their skins, their knowledge of the useful arts and agriculture, and the mechanical skill exhibited in their edifices at the present day, bear a striking analogy with the Mexican people at the period of the conquest, and as M. Humboldt observes, "appears to announce traces of the cultivation of the ancient Mexicans." The Indians have a tradition that 20 leagues north from the Moqui, near the mouth of the Rio Zaguananas, the banks of the Nabajoa were the first abode156 of the Aztecs after their departure from Atzlan. "On considering the civilization," adds Baron Humboldt, "which exists on several points of the northwest coast of America, in the Moqui and on the banks of the Gila, we are tempted157 to believe (and I venture to repeat it here) that at the period of the migration158 of the Toltecs, the Acolhues and the Aztecs, several tribes separated from the great mass of the people to establish themselves in these northern regions."[20][16]
Connected with this subject and in evidence of the identity of these tribes with the Aztecs, it should be stated that there exists numerous edifices of stone in a ruined state, on the banks of the Gila, some of great extent, resembling the terraced edifices and teocallis of Mexico and Yucatan. One of these structures measures four hundred and forty-five feet in length by two hundred and seventy in breadth, with walls four feet in thickness. It was three stories high, with a terrace. The whole surrounding plain is covered with broken pottery and earthen ware159, painted in various colors. Vestiges160 of an artificial canal are also to be seen.[17] Among the fragments are found pieces of obsidian, a volcanic161 substance not common to the country, and which is also found in the mounds in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys, in both cases applied162 to the same uses.
Some valuable contributions to the geography and ethnology of the vast region lying between the Rocky Mountains and Upper California and Oregon, have been made by Capt. Fremont of the U.S. corps163 of Engineers. The expedition under his command traversed the great desert, and examined portions of the country not before visited by white men. The information collected by this enterprising traveller will be of much service to the country in the new relations which may arise between the United States and California, as well as to persons who are seeking new homes in Oregon. The report of Captain, (now Col.) Fremont has been so widely circulated, and rendered so accessible to all who feel an interest in the subject,[21] that it would be superfluous164 to give any analysis of the work at this time. So satisfactory were the results of the expedition of this accomplished165 officer to the country and the government, that he has again been sent to make further explorations of the country south of that previously visited by him, and which lies between Santa Fé and the Pacific Ocean. Colonel Fremont has in this expedition already rendered important services to the country, having the command of a detachment of troops in Upper California. This armed body of men will give him great advantages over an ordinary traveller in a wild and inhospitable country, where there are still tribes of Indians which have not yet been subjugated166 by the Spaniards, and which an unprotected traveller could not approach. Much interest has been awakened167 from the accounts already received from Col. Fremont, and it is to be hoped that ere long we shall be placed in possession of full reports of his explorations, which must throw much light on the geography of this vast region, its aboriginal inhabitants, productions, climate, &c.
An exploratory journey in the isthmus168 of Panama has recently been made by M. Hillert, which has resulted in adding much important information to our previous knowledge of the country. It is known that there have been many surveys of the isthmus, with the view of opening a water communication between the oceans on either side. Such was the primary object of Mr. Hillert, who, it appears has also made enquiries as to the practicability of making a rail road across it. His observations on the junction169 of the two oceans by means of a canal have appeared in the bulletin of the Geographical170 Society of Paris for 1846, (pp. 306 and 389), together with various letters from him on other subjects which attracted his attention.
Among other things Mr. Hillert has made known a most valuable anti-venomous plant, the guaco, a creeping plant, which abounds in the forest of the Isthmus, the virtues171 of which were made known to him by the Indians. After[22] rubbing the hands with the leaves of this plant, a person may handle scorpions172 and venomous insects with impunity173, and mosquitoes after sucking the blood of those who had taken it inwardly died instantly. The geology and botany of the country received particular attention. M. Hillert proposes to introduce several of the most useful plants and vegetables into the French dominions174 in Senegal or Algeria, among them the plant from which the Panama hats are made. So valuable are the labors of this gentleman considered, that the French commission has awarded him the Orleans prize, for having introduced into France the most useful improvement in agriculture. Some ancient monumental edifices were discovered in the Isthmus, not far from the river Atrato, and others near the mines of Cano; besides these an ancient canal cut through the solid rock in the interval175 which separates the rivers Atrato and Darien.
Note.—The following list embraces all the books relating to Oregon, California, and Mexico, printed during the last two years.
Narrative176 of the exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains, in the year 1842, and to Oregon and North California, in the years 1843-4, by Capt. J.C. Fremont of the Topographical Engineers, under the orders of Col. J.J. Abert, 8vo. Washington, 1846.
Exploration du Territoire de l'Oregon, des Californies, et de la Mer Vermeille, executée pendant les années 1840, 41 et 42, par1 M. Duflot de Mofras, Attaché à la Légation de France à Mexico. 2 vols. 8vo. and folio atlas177 of maps and plates. Paris, 1845.
The Oregon Territory, claims thereto, of England and America considered, its condition and prospects178. By Alexander Simpson, Esq. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Territory, a geographical and physical account of that country and its inhabitants. By Rev100. C.G. Nicholay. 18mo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Question determined by the rules of International law. By Edward J. Wallace of Bombay. 8vo. London, 1840.
The Oregon question. By the Hon. Albert Gallatin. 8vo. New York, 1846.
The Oregon Question examined, in respect to facts and the laws of nations. By Travers Twiss, D.C.L. 8vo. London, 1846.
The Oregon Question as it stands. By M.B. Sampson. London, 1846.
Prairiedom; Rambles179 and Scrambles180 in Texas and New Estremadura. By a Southron. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Life in California during a residence of several years in that Territory. By an American. To which is annexed181 an historical account of the origin, customs and traditions of the Indians of Alta California, from the Spanish. Post 8vo. New York, 1846.
An Essay on the Oregon Question, written for the Shakespeare Club. By E.A. Meredith. Montreal, 1846.
The Topic No. 3. The Oregon Question. 4to. London, 1846.
Life in Prairie Land. By Mrs. Eliza W. Farnham. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Green's Journal of the Texan expedition against Mier; subsequent Imprisonment182 of the Author; his Sufferings, and final Escape from the Castle of Perote. With reflections upon the present political and probable future relations of Texas, Mexico, and the United States. Illustrated183 by Drawings taken from Life by Charles M'Laughlin, a Fellow-prisoner. Engravings. 8vo.
Travels over the table lands and Cordilleras of Mexico, in 1843-4. With an appendix on Oregon and California. By Albert M. Gilliam, late U.S. Counsul, California. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1846.
Recollections of Mexico. By Waddy Thompson, Esq., late Minister Plenipotentiary of the U.S. at Mexico. 8vo. New York, 1846.
Altowan; or incidents of life and adventure in the Rocky Mountains. By an Amateur Traveller. Edited by James Watson Webb. 2 vol. 12mo. New York, 1846.
Scenes in the Rocky Mountains, Oregon, California, New Mexico, Texas, and Grand Prairies, including descriptions of the different races inhabiting them, &c. By a New Englander. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1846.
History of Oregon and California, and the other Territories on the North West Coast of North America: from their discovery to the present day. Accompanied by a geographical view of those countries. By Robert Greenhow. 8vo. third edition. Boston, 1847.
[23]
Greenland and the Arctic Regions. The Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries published, in 1845, Gr?nlands Historiske Mindesm?rker, (The Historical Monuments of Greenland), Vol. III., (958 pages, with 12 copperplates), which closes this work. The 1st and 2d volumes, (pp. 814 and 794 respectively), were published in 1838. After Professor Rafn had finished the compilation184 of his separate work, Antiquitates American?, which was published by the Society in 1837, he connected himself with Professor Finn Magnusen, for the purpose of editing—also under the auspices185 of the Society—the great collection of original written sources of the ancient history of that remarkable polar land, which was first seen in 877, and colonized186 in 986. With a view of doing all that lay in its power to throw light on ancient Greenland, the[24] Society, during the ten years from 1832 to 1841, caused journies to be undertaken and explorations to be performed in such of the Greenland firths as were of the greatest importance in respect of the ancient colonization187. By excavations made among the ruins remaining from the ancient colony, there was obtained a collection of inscriptions and other antiquities, which are now preserved in the American Museum erected188 by the Society, and drawings were taken of the ground plans of several edifices. Of the reports received on this occasion, we must in an especial manner notice, as exhibiting evidence of the most assiduous care, and as moreover embracing the most important part of the country, the exploration undertaken by the Rev. George T. Joergensen, of the firths of Igalikko and Tunnudluarbik, where the most considerable ruins are situated. The present, vol. III., contains, extracts from annals, and a collection of Documents relating to Greenland, compiled by Finn Magnusen; (to this part appertains a plate exhibiting seals of the Greenland Bishops189); ancient geographical writings, compiled by Finn Magnusen and Charles C. Rafn; the voyages of the brothers Zeno, with introductory remarks and notes by Dr. Bredsdorff; a view of more recent voyages for the re-discovery of Greenland, by Dr. C. Pingel, an antiquarian chorography of Greenland, drawn190 up by J.J.A. Warsaae, from the accounts furnished by various travellers of the explorations undertaken by them. The work is closed by a view of the ancient geography of Greenland, by Professor Charles C. Rafn, based on a collation191 of the notices contained in the ancient manuscripts and the accounts of the country furnished by the travellers. To which is added a list of the bishops and a chronological192 conspectus of the ancient and modern history of the country, a historical index of names, a geographical index, and an antiquarian index rerum. Copperplate maps are annexed of the two most important districts of ancient Greenland—the eastern settlement, (Eystribygd), and the western settlement,[25] (Vestribygd), exhibiting the position of the numerous ruins. Moreover, plans and elevations193 of the most important ecclesiastical ruins and other rudera; also delineations of runic stones and other northern antiquities found in Greenland.
Scripta Historica Islandorum, latine reddita et apparatu critico instructa, curante Societate Regia Antiquariorum Septentrionalium. Vol. XII. The edition first commenced by the Society, of the historical Sagas194 recording195 events which happened out of America, (Iceland, Greenland and Vinland), particularly in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, in the original Icelandic text with two translations, one into Latin, and another into Danish, (36 vols.) has now been brought to a completion, by the publication of the above mentioned volume, (pp. 658 in 8vo.) wherein are contained Regesta Geographica to the whole work, which for this large cyclus of Sagas may be considered as tantamount to an old northern geographical gazetteer196, in as much as attention has also been paid to other old northern manuscripts of importance in a geographical point of view. Complete, however, it cannot by any means be called, neither as regards Iceland especially and other lands in America, whose copious197 historical sources have, in the present instance, been but partially made use of, nor also as regards the European countries without the Scandinavian North, for whose remote history and ancient geography the old northern writings contain such important materials, but it is to be hoped that the Society will in due time take an opportunity of extending its labors in that direction also. The present volume does, however, contain a number of names of places situated without the bounds of Scandinavia in countries of which mention is made in the writings published in the work itself. To the name of each place is annexed its Icelandic or old Danish form, and the position of the place is investigated by means of comparison with other historical data and with modern geography.[26]
Sir John Franklin who left about two years on a voyage of exploration, in the Arctic regions of America, remains in those inhospitable parts. Much anxiety is felt for him as no tidings have been received from him. It is to be hoped that his voyage will prove successful and that before the close of the present year, he may return.
The Hudson's Bay Company has lately fitted out an expedition, for the purpose of surveying the unexplored portion of the coast on the northeast angle of the North American continent. The expedition, which consists of thirteen persons, is under the command of one of the company's officers. It started on the 5th July, in two boats, under favorable circumstances;—the ice having cleared away from the shores of the bay at an earlier period of the year than usual.[18]
A memoir198 on the Indian tribes beyond the Rocky mountains, and particularly those along the shores of the Pacific ocean, from California to Behring's straits, with comparative vocabularies of their languages, is preparing for publication by the Hon. Albert Gallatin, from authentic199 materials. Mr. Hale, philologist125 of the United States Exploring Expedition, has made a valuable contribution to the Ethnology of this region, in his volume, entitled "Ethnology and Philology," being the seventh volume of the U.S. Exploring Expedition.
Recent Works on the Arctic Regions.
Barrow's (Sir J.) Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions, from the year 1818 to the present time, in search of a north-west passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific; with two attempts to reach the North Pole. Abridged200 from the official narratives201, with remarks by Sir John Barrow. 8vo. London, 1846.
Americas Arctiske landes gamle geographie efter de Nordiske Oldskriefter ved C.C. Rafn. 8vo. Copenhagen, 1846.
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par
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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elucidation
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| n.说明，阐明 | |
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antiquities
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| n.古老( antiquity的名词复数 )；古迹；古人们；古代的风俗习惯 | |
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investigations
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| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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aboriginal
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| adj.（指动植物）土生的，原产地的，土著的 | |
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enquirer
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| 寻问者，追究者 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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attested
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| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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mound
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| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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anticipation
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| n.预期，预料，期望 | |
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uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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anomalous
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| adj.反常的；不规则的 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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radically
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| ad.根本地，本质地 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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elucidate
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| v.阐明，说明 | |
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shrouded
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| v.隐瞒( shroud的过去式和过去分词 )；保密 | |
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excavations
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| n.挖掘( excavation的名词复数 )；开凿；开凿的洞穴（或山路等）；（发掘出来的）古迹 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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excavated
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| v.挖掘( excavate的过去式和过去分词 )；开凿；挖出；发掘 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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coffin
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| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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pottery
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| n.陶器，陶器场 | |
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marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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mica
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| n.云母 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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obsidian
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| n.黑曜石 | |
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intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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reptiles
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| n.爬行动物，爬虫( reptile的名词复数 ) | |
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alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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edifices
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| n.大建筑物( edifice的名词复数 ) | |
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edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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prominence
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| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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stationary
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| adj.固定的，静止不动的 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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54
obliterated
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| v.除去( obliterate的过去式和过去分词 )；涂去；擦掉；彻底破坏或毁灭 | |
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elk
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| n.麋鹿 | |
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abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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progenitors
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| n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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actively
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| adv.积极地，勤奋地 | |
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relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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flattened
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| [医]（水）平扁的，弄平的 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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pigments
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| n.（粉状）颜料( pigment的名词复数 )；天然色素 | |
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beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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cemeteries
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| n.（非教堂的）墓地，公墓( cemetery的名词复数 ) | |
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cone
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| n.圆锥体，圆锥形东西，球果 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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loam
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| n.沃土 | |
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gravel
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| n.砂跞；砂砾层；结石 | |
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posture
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| n.姿势，姿态，心态，态度；v.作出某种姿势 | |
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promiscuously
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| adv.杂乱地，混杂地 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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crumbled
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| （把…）弄碎， （使）碎成细屑( crumble的过去式和过去分词 )； 衰落； 坍塌； 损坏 | |
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perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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plantation
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| n.种植园，大农场 | |
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fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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infested
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| adj.为患的，大批滋生的（常与with搭配）v.害虫、野兽大批出没于( infest的过去式和过去分词 )；遍布于 | |
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massacre
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| n.残杀，大屠杀；v.残杀，集体屠杀 | |
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precipices
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| n.悬崖，峭壁( precipice的名词复数 ) | |
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creek
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| n.小溪，小河，小湾 | |
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gateways
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| n.网关( gateway的名词复数 )；门径；方法；大门口 | |
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citadel
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| n.城堡；堡垒；避难所 | |
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92
masonry
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| n.砖土建筑；砖石 | |
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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agate
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| n.玛瑙 | |
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lustre
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| n.光亮，光泽；荣誉 | |
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96
skulls
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| 颅骨( skull的名词复数 )； 脑袋； 脑子； 脑瓜 | |
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wagon
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| n.四轮马车，手推车，面包车；无盖运货列车 | |
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98
carvings
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| n.雕刻( carving的名词复数 )；雕刻术；雕刻品；雕刻物 | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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100
rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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101
ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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102
kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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103
quartz
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| n.石英 | |
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104
mortars
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| n.迫击炮( mortar的名词复数 )；砂浆；房产；研钵 | |
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105
erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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106
bracelets
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| n.手镯，臂镯( bracelet的名词复数 ) | |
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107
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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108
chisels
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| n.凿子，錾子( chisel的名词复数 )；口凿 | |
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109
tusk
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| n.獠牙，长牙，象牙 | |
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110
cylindrical
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| adj.圆筒形的 | |
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111
rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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112
inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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113
inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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114
inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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115
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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116
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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117
engraved
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| v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的过去式和过去分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
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118
alphabetic
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| adj.照字母次序的，字母的 | |
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119
philological
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| adj.语言学的，文献学的 | |
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120
supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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121
anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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122
affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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123
contiguity
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| n.邻近，接壤 | |
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124
philologists
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| n.语文学( philology的名词复数 ) | |
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125
philologist
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| n.语言学者，文献学者 | |
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126
unravel
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| v.弄清楚（秘密）；拆开，解开，松开 | |
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127
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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128
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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129
affluents
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| n.富裕的，富足的( affluent的名词复数 ) | |
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130
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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131
subsist
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| vi.生存，存在，供养 | |
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132
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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133
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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134
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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135
complexion
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| n.肤色；情况，局面；气质，性格 | |
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136
graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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137
savor
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| vt.品尝，欣赏；n.味道，风味；情趣，趣味 | |
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138
succumbed
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| 不再抵抗（诱惑、疾病、攻击等）( succumb的过去式和过去分词 )； 屈从； 被压垮； 死 | |
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139
texture
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| n.(织物)质地；(材料)构造；结构；肌理 | |
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140
durability
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| n.经久性，耐用性 | |
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141
fabrics
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| 织物( fabric的名词复数 )； 布； 构造； （建筑物的）结构（如墙、地面、屋顶）：质地 | |
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142
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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143
herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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144
inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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145
inaccessible
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| adj.达不到的，难接近的 | |
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146
defiles
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| v.玷污( defile的第三人称单数 )；污染；弄脏；纵列行进 | |
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147
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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148
odds
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| n.让步，机率，可能性，比率；胜败优劣之别 | |
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149
conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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150
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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151
corroborates
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| v.证实，支持（某种说法、信仰、理论等）( corroborate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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152
savannas
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| n.（美国东南部的）无树平原( savanna的名词复数 )；（亚）热带的稀树大草原 | |
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153
maize
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| n.玉米 | |
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154
impervious
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| adj.不能渗透的，不能穿过的，不易伤害的 | |
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155
baron
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| n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王 | |
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156
abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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157
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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158
migration
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| n.迁移，移居，（鸟类等的）迁徙 | |
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159
ware
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| n.(常用复数)商品，货物 | |
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160
vestiges
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| 残余部分( vestige的名词复数 )； 遗迹； 痕迹； 毫不 | |
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161
volcanic
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| adj.火山的；象火山的；由火山引起的 | |
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162
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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163
corps
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| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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164
superfluous
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| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
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165
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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166
subjugated
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| v.征服，降伏( subjugate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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167
awakened
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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168
isthmus
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| n.地峡 | |
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169
junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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170
geographical
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| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
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171
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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172
scorpions
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| n.蝎子( scorpion的名词复数 ) | |
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173
impunity
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| n.(惩罚、损失、伤害等的)免除 | |
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174
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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175
interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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176
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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177
atlas
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| n.地图册，图表集 | |
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178
prospects
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| n.希望，前途(恒为复数) | |
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179
rambles
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| （无目的地）漫游( ramble的第三人称单数 )； （喻）漫谈； 扯淡； 长篇大论 | |
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180
scrambles
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| n.抢夺( scramble的名词复数 )v.快速爬行( scramble的第三人称单数 )；攀登；争夺；（军事飞机）紧急起飞 | |
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181
annexed
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| [法] 附加的，附属的 | |
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182
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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183
illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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184
compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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185
auspices
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| n.资助，赞助 | |
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186
colonized
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| 开拓殖民地，移民于殖民地( colonize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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187
colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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188
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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189
bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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190
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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191
collation
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| n.便餐；整理 | |
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192
chronological
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| adj.按年月顺序排列的，年代学的 | |
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193
elevations
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| （水平或数量）提高( elevation的名词复数 )； 高地； 海拔； 提升 | |
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194
sagas
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| n.萨迦（尤指古代挪威或冰岛讲述冒险经历和英雄业绩的长篇故事）( saga的名词复数 )；（讲述许多年间发生的事情的）长篇故事；一连串的事件（或经历）；一连串经历的讲述（或记述） | |
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195
recording
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| n.录音，记录 | |
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196
gazetteer
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| n.地名索引 | |
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197
copious
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| adj.丰富的，大量的 | |
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198
memoir
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| n.[pl.]回忆录，自传；记事录 | |
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199
authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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200
abridged
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| 削减的，删节的 | |
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201
narratives
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| 记叙文( narrative的名词复数 )； 故事； 叙述； 叙述部分 | |
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