There are a number of ways of reaching the Hopi pueblos3. If one would go in by the east, he may choose to start from Holbrook on the Santa Fé Pacific Railroad, or Winslow (two days each), or by the west from Canyon4 Diablo (two days), or Flagstaff (three days). The estimates of time are based on “traveling light” and with few interruptions. A longer journey may be made from Gallup, during which the Canyon de Chelly, with its wonderful cliff dwellings5, may be visited if one has a sufficient outfit6 and plenty of time.
The home-land of the Hopi, known as Tusayan from old times, is a semi-desert, lying a mile and a quarter [14] above sea-level. It is deeply scarred by canyons7 and plentifully8 studded with buttes and mesas, though there are vast stretches which seem level till one gets closer acquaintance. From the pueblos the view is open from the northwest to the southeast, and uninterrupted over the great basin of the Colorado Chiquito, or Little Colorado River, rimmed9 on the far horizon by the peaks of the San Francisco, Mogollon, and White Mountains, while in the other quarters broken mesas shut out the view.
The rainfall almost immediately sinking into the sandy wastes, determines that there shall be no perennially-flowing rivers in Tusayan, and that springs must be few and far between and the most valued of all possessions. Were it not for winter snows and summer thunder-storms, Tusayan would be a desert indeed.
The hardy10 grasses and desert plants do their best to cover the nakedness of the country; along the washes are a few cottonwoods; on the mesas are junipers and pi?ons; and in the higher lands to the north small oaks strive for an existence. At times, when the rains are favoring, plants spring up and the desert is painted with great masses of color; here and there are stretches green with grass or yellow with the flowering bunches of the “rabbit brush” or gray with the ice plant. In sheltered spots many rare and beautiful flowers may be found.
The Hopi enjoy a summer climate the temperature [15] of which is that of Maine and a winter climate that is far less severe than the latter, since most days are bright and the sun has power. Even in the warmest season the nights are cool, and an enjoyable coolness is found by day in the shade. The dryness of the region renders it ideal for healthful sleeping in the open air. A pure atmosphere like that of the sea bathes Tusayan; no microbes pollute it with their presence and it fills the body with good blood and an exhilaration like wine.
Perforce the Hopi are agricultural, and since there is little game to be hunted, they are also largely vegetarians11, their chief food being corn. When the corn crop fails the desert plants are relied on to prevent starvation. The Hopi thus form a good example of a people whose very existence depends on the plants of the earth, and it speaks well for their skill as farmers, in so unfavorable an environment, that there are any of them living in Tusayan at this day.
Out of this environment the Hopi has shaped his religious beliefs, whose strenuous12 appeal is for food and life from the grasping destroyers of nature that whelm him. And in like manner he has drawn13 from this niggard stretch his house, his pottery14, baskets, clothing and all the arts that show how man can rise above his environment. But let us have a closer view of this Indian who is so worthy15 of the respect of his superiors in culture.
The Hopi man is moderate of stature16, well-framed, [16] hard-muscled, and agile17, since he depended on his own feet for going anywhere and on his arms for work before the day of the burro and the horse. Black, straight hair worn long, brownish skin, the smooth and expressive18 face in the young men, intensifying19 as they grow older, bringing out the high cheek-bones, the nose, the large mouth and accenting them with wrinkles, but never developing a sullen20, ferocious21 cast of countenance22, always preserving the lines of worth and dignity and the pleasing curves of humor and good-fellowship to the end of life,—these are the salient characters of the Hopi.
The same remarks apply to the other sex, who from childhood to old age run the course in milder degree. Many of the maidens24 are pretty and the matrons are comely26 and wholesome27 to behold28. The old, wrinkled and bowed go their way with quiet mien29 and busy themselves with the light duties in which their experience counts for much.
In spite of the luxuriant hair that adorns30 the heads of this people, one may notice the difference of head shape which distinguishes them from the tribes of the plains. The cradle-board is partly responsible for this, since, from infancy31, the children are bound to the cradle and obliged to lie on the back for longer or shorter intervals32, and thus begins the flattening33 of the back of the skull34. But the heads of the women are rarely flattened35, probably because the girls are not so well cared for as the boys.
[17] There are among the Hopi a greater number of albinos in proportion to the population than may be found almost anywhere else. They go about their avocations36 like the rest and are in no way regarded as different from their kin1. The impulse is to address them in English, and one feels surprised when they do not comprehend. One albino maiden25 of Mishongnovi has a marvelous growth of golden hair which shows to great advantage in her ample hair whorls. Many students believe that albinism has its origin in the nervous system, and perhaps the timidity of the Hopi explains the number of these remarkable37 people in their midst; but this is a theory, based on a theory. It has been observed that some of the albinos are below the average in intelligence, and it has been ascertained38 that the larger proportion of them are second in order of birth in a family.
From the number of old people in the pueblos one would gain the impression that the Hopi are long-lived. All things considered, this is doubtless the truth, but there are no statistics to settle the matter; besides, the question of age is a doubtful one among the Hopi themselves. If “sans everything” is any criterion of a centenarian, there are such among the Peaceful People. One must conclude that, on passing childhood, the average Hopi is due for a second term of the helpless period.
“Welcome” is not written over every Hopi door, but the spirit of hospitality pervades39 the entire [18] population. This is one of the pleasant features of the Pueblos and is the chief reason why the Hopi are held in friendly remembrance by visitors. An acquaintance with the Indians in the different pueblos of the Southwest will convince one that there is a considerable range of disposition40 among them. Perhaps the extremes are the untractable Santo Domingans and the impressionable Hopi. It seems to be a matter of the elements of which the tribes have been made up and of their past experiences and associations.
High up on the gray rocks the Hopi towns look as though they were part of the native cliff. The seven towns,—though twenty miles and three distinct mesas separate the extremes,—Hano and Oraibi,—are built on the same stratum42 of sandstone. The rock shows tints43 of light red, yellow, and brown, and cleaves44 into great cubical pillars and blocks, leaving the face of the cliff always vertical45. Trails at different points lead up over the low masses of talus and reach the flat top through crevices46 and breaks in this rock-wall, often over surfaces where pockets have been cut in the stone for hand and foot. A very little powder, properly applied47, would render these mesas as difficult of ascent48 as the Enchanted49 Mesa near Acoma.
Once on top and breathing normally after the four hundred feet or so of precipitous climbing, one sees why the outer walls of the towns seem to be a continuation of the living rock. The houses are built of slabs50 of stone of various sizes, quarried51 from the mesa [19] and laid up in mud. They are of terrace style, rarely more than of two stories, flat-roofed, and grouped in masses so as to form streets and plazas52 and conforming to the irregularities of the surface and outline of the mesas. For this reason not much order can be found in a Hopi pueblo2. The uneven53 surface of the mesas gives a varying height to the houses and increases the picturesqueness54 of the skyline.
These Hopi towns are the most primitive56 of the inhabited pueblos. Before us is a picture of the ancient life as true as may be found in this day of inquisitive57 travelers and of rapid transportation to the ends of the earth. But this state of things is changing with increasing rapidity; the Hopi is becoming progressive and yearns58 for the things of the white man with increasing desire, therefore it is evident that, before many years, much that is charming in Tusayan by reason of the ancient touch about it will have vanished from the lives of its brown inhabitants.
This change is most marked at Walpi, because the East Mesa people have longest been in contact with the civilizing59 influences of schools, missions, and trading posts; besides, they were always apparently60 the most tractable41 of the Hopi. Many families have abandoned the villages on the cliffs, and their modern, red-roofed houses dotting the lower ground near the fields show the tendency to forsake61 the crowded hill-towns. But the old towns exist in all their primitiveness62 and furnish bits of surpassing interest to lovers of the [20] picturesque55. To these the bulk of the conservative Hopi still cling with all the force of their inherited instinct.
Two centuries ago visitors arrived at Walpi from the Rio Grande. These were a tribe of Tewa, invited to come to Tusayan to aid in fighting off the Apache and Ute, those wily nomad63 adversaries64 with whom the Peaceful People for so long had to contend. Here they have lived ever since in their village of Hano, at the head of the most readily accessible trail up the mesa, preserving their language and customs, and besides their own tongue, speaking well the language of their friends and neighbors. The Tewa brought with them their potter’s art and now have the honor to be practically the only makers65 of earthenware66 in Tusayan. Nampeo is the best potter at Hano and her work shows her to be a worthy descendant of the ancient artists, whose graceful68 vessels69 lie with the bones of the dead beneath the sands of the great Southwest.
Beyond Hano, and midway between it and Walpi, is Sichomovi, which signifies “flower mound70.” Sichomovi, if we may judge from the good preservation71 of its houses and the regularity72 with which the town is laid out, seems to be comparatively new, and indeed, there is traditionary testimony73 to this effect. The dusky historians of Walpi relate the circumstances of its foundation, when the yellow flowers grew in the crevices of the rock at the place where several stranger clans74 were allowed to settle.
[21] Passing out of Sichomovi and crossing a narrow neck of the mesa traversed by a well-worn trail, Walpi is reached. This village from different points of view presents the appearance of a confused jumble75 of dilapidated houses, and a walk through its alleys76 and passages confirms the impression. Walpi was a town of necessity and was erected77 in 1590, having been moved up from a lower point after troubles with the Spanish conquistadores.
Looking down from the town one may trace the site of Old Walpi and descry78 the pottery-strewn mounds79 of still older settlements, since around this mesa the first comers to Tusayan probably located. At the foot of the mesa are also springs and shrines80, one of the latter being the true “center of the world” to the Hopi mind, a point which gave the ancients much trouble to determine. Along the ledges81 are corrals for the motley flocks of black and white sheep and goats, adepts82 in subsisting83 on all sorts of unpalatable brush. Farther down in the level are the fields, at the proper season green with the prospect84 of corn, melons, and beans.
Walpi streets are the living rock of the mesa worn smooth by human feet and swept by the officious wind-god, whose dry air, with the aid of the sun, form the board of health of the Hopiland. This rocky surface must have been a great trial to the kiva builders, as traditional custom requires that such meeting places of the secret societies or brotherhoods85 should be underground. The kivas along the streets thus represent a [22] great amount of work in their construction, and it is clear that, when the builders found a cleft86 in the rock or a niche87 in the cliff-edge, they appropriated it as the site of a kiva, then built an outer wall overhanging the precipice88 and prepared the deep oblong room with toilsome labor89, for they had only the rude tools of the stone age.
The two poles of the ladder project from the kiva hatchway, and one may descend67 if no ceremony is on hand. There is not much to see except an empty, smoke-blackened room with stone-paved floor, plastered walls, and ceiling crossed by heavy beams. Just in front of the ladder is a fireplace, consisting of a stone box sunk in the floor, and the portion of the room back of the ladder is elevated. These subterranean90 chambers91 are now found in use only in Tusayan, where this manner of building them, along with many other ancient customs, has been preserved by the Hopi through many generations.
Hopi houses are small, and as in the other pueblos of the Southwest, the first families live in the second story, which is reached by a ladder. In recent times, though, the ground floor, which formerly92 was used chiefly for storage, has been cleaned out, furnished with doors, and occupied as habitations. Steps on the dividing walls lead to the upper story and the roof forms a general loitering-place. The living room is kept in good order, and a goodly array of blankets, harness, and clothes hanging from a swinging pole are [23] looked on with pride and complacency. In the granary, which is generally a back room, the ears of corn are often sorted by color and laid up in neat walls and one year’s crop is always kept in reserve for a bad season. Red corn, yellow corn, white corn, blue corn, black corn, and mottled corn make a Hopi grain room a study in color. Three oblong hollowed stones or metates of graded fineness are sunk in the floor of every Hopi house, and on these, with another stone held in the hands, the corn is ground to fine meal, the grinders singing shrill93 songs at their back-breaking work.
In the corner of the baking-room is a fireplace covered with a smoke hood23 and containing slabs of stone for the baking of piki, or paper bread, while scattered94 about are many baskets, jars, bowls, cups, and other utensils95 of pottery well fitted for the purposes of the Hopi culinary art. Outside the house is a sunken pit in which corn-pudding is baked.
These and many other things about the Hopi villages will interest the visitor, who will not have serious difficulty in overlooking the innovations or in obtaining a clear idea of Pueblo life as it was in the times long past.
If one crosses the plain to the three villages of the Middle Mesa, he will find still less of the effect of contact with modern things. Mushongnovi, the second town of Tusayan in point of size, presented as late as 1906 a perfect picture of an unmodified pueblo on its [24] giant mesa, the eastern and northern walls of the town blank and high like the face of a cliff. Within this closely-built village the terraced houses face the streets and open plazas, after the ancient fashion. Because of their harmony with their primitive surroundings, one hesitates to believe in the modernness of the chimneys of these pueblos, yet it appears to be true that the idea is of Spanish introduction.
Shipaulovi, on its high vantage point, seems newer than Shumopavi, its neighbor, the latter being the most regular pueblo in Tusayan. Some fifteen miles beyond Shumopavi is Oraibi, the largest of the seven Hopi towns, whose rough walls give it an appearance of great age. Oraibi held out longest against the white intruders, and even now would much prefer to be left alone in the enjoyment96 of its accustomed ways, but the school-houses and the red roofs brought by the white man increasingly menace its old-world notions.
The nearest neighbors of the Hopi are the Navaho, that large and rapidly growing tribe who are what they call themselves, Dene, “men.” They crowd upon the Hopi, and when the opportunity offers “raise” some stock or dictate97 with sublime98 egotism the conduct of the ceremonies. Several hundred years of contact with the pueblo folk have made the once uncultured Navaho in many respects like them. The timid Hopi do not choose to affiliate99 with the Navaho, but marriages are not infrequent among members of the two tribes. Generally it is a Navaho brave who seeks a [25] Hopi maiden to wife, coming to live with her people, but rarely does a Hopi youth lead a “Teshab” girl to his hearth100 as did Anowita of Walpi.
A few Zu?i have cast their lot at Tusayan and several of the latter live at Zu?i and in some of the Rio Grande pueblos. Not many years ago, a Hopi was chief of an important fraternity at Sia, a pueblo on the Jemez River in New Mexico. The Zu?i are quite neighborly and visit Tusayan to witness the ceremonies or to exchange necklaces of shell and turquoise101 beads102 for blankets. Tradition has it that some of the clans from the Rio Grande came by way of Zu?i and that Sichomovi has a strong admixture from that pueblo. In support of this it may be said that the Zu?i visitors are usually domiciled at Sichomovi, where they seem very much at home, and many of the people there speak the Zu?i language.
At the time of the ceremonies, especially those performed in summer, Tewa from the Rio Grande pueblos come to visit and trade and enjoy the merrymaking that attends the dances. Some of the people of Hano have visited their relatives on the Rio Grande, but few of the Hopi are so far-traveled in these days. There has been for centuries, however, more or less communication across the vast stretch of arid103 country lying between the Great River and Tusayan, and in a number of instances in the distant past, whole tribes have emigrated from the east to the Hopi country where they have founded new towns. Although 100 [26] miles away, the Havasupai may also be regarded as near neighbors who cross the desert to sell their fine baskets and superior white-tanned deerskins, for which articles there is great demand. The Hopi also traverse the sandy waste to visit the “People of the Ladders,” as they call the Havasupai, and bring back sacred red ocher and green copper104 stone for pigments105. The Havasupai and Hopi are likewise linked by traditions of an ancient time.
Long ago, say the Hopi, the Paiute, who are uncultured but strong in the art of warfare106, came down from the north and harassed107 them until the people of Hano vanquished108 them. The Paiute, although remotely related, were not friendly to the Hopi, and besides, there was much of value to be seized from the mesa-dwellers. For this reason the Hopi did not cultivate the friendship with the Paiute and the only one of that tribe living in Tusayan is “Tom Sawyer,” whose portrait is drawn in another place.
Nor were the Apache more desirable neighbors. The Hopi tell of the troublous times when these nomads109 came from the south and compelled them to draw up their ladders from the cliff at night. Still, Paiute and Apache baskets and other aboriginal110 manufactures found their way to the pueblos, who were always cosmopolitan111 in their tastes and did not allow tribal112 enmity to interfere113 with trade.
Far to the south another people were friends of the Hopi. Very long ago the Pima were closer neighbors [27] and allies of some of the Hopi clans, who touched them in their wide migrations114, which brought them to the “Palatkwabi.” This is the Red Land of the south, lying on the Verde River and its tributaries115. The Hopi lay claim to the Tonto Basin in southern Arizona, which has been thought to be their ancient country since far and wide over this southern region is found the yellow pottery so characteristic of the golden age of the Hopi. Sometimes still the Hopi visit the Pima, and it is known that formerly they joined in a fair that was held in the Pima country and brought back various commodities in exchange for their own products. Even today agave sweetmeats and alder116 bark, the latter used for dyeing leather, are found in Hopi dwellings, having been brought from beyond “Apache House,” as they call the region south of the San Francisco Mountains where the Apache formerly lived.
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1
kin
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| n.家族，亲属，血缘关系；adj.亲属关系的，同类的 | |
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pueblo
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| n.（美国西南部或墨西哥等）印第安人的村庄 | |
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pueblos
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| n.印第安人村庄( pueblo的名词复数 ) | |
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4
canyon
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| n.峡谷，溪谷 | |
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dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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outfit
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| n.（为特殊用途的）全套装备，全套服装 | |
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canyons
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| n.峡谷( canyon的名词复数 ) | |
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plentifully
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| adv. 许多地，丰饶地 | |
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rimmed
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| adj.有边缘的，有框的v.沿…边缘滚动；给…镶边 | |
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hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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vegetarians
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| n.吃素的人( vegetarian的名词复数 )；素食者；素食主义者；食草动物 | |
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strenuous
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| adj.奋发的，使劲的；紧张的；热烈的，狂热的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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pottery
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| n.陶器，陶器场 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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stature
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| n.（高度）水平，（高度）境界，身高，身材 | |
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agile
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| adj.敏捷的，灵活的 | |
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expressive
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| adj.表现的，表达…的，富于表情的 | |
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intensifying
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的现在分词 )；增辉 | |
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sullen
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| adj.愠怒的，闷闷不乐的，(天气等)阴沉的 | |
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ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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hood
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| n.头巾，兜帽，覆盖；v.罩上，以头巾覆盖 | |
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maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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maiden
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| n.少女，处女；adj.未婚的，纯洁的，无经验的 | |
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comely
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| adj.漂亮的，合宜的 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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mien
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| n.风采；态度 | |
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adorns
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| 装饰，佩带( adorn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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flattening
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| n. 修平 动词flatten的现在分词 | |
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skull
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| n.头骨；颅骨 | |
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flattened
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| [医]（水）平扁的，弄平的 | |
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avocations
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| n.业余爱好，嗜好( avocation的名词复数 )；职业 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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tractable
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| adj.易驾驭的；温顺的 | |
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stratum
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| n.地层，社会阶层 | |
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43
tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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44
cleaves
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| v.劈开，剁开，割开( cleave的第三人称单数 ) | |
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45
vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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crevices
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| n.（尤指岩石的）裂缝，缺口( crevice的名词复数 ) | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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ascent
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| n.(声望或地位)提高；上升，升高；登高 | |
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49
enchanted
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| adj. 被施魔法的，陶醉的，入迷的 动词enchant的过去式和过去分词 | |
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slabs
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| n.厚板，平板，厚片( slab的名词复数 )；厚胶片 | |
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51
quarried
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| v.从采石场采得( quarry的过去式和过去分词 )；从（书本等中）努力发掘（资料等）；在采石场采石 | |
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52
plazas
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| n.（尤指西班牙语城镇的）露天广场( plaza的名词复数 )；购物中心 | |
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53
uneven
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| adj.不平坦的，不规则的，不均匀的 | |
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54
picturesqueness
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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57
inquisitive
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| adj.求知欲强的，好奇的，好寻根究底的 | |
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58
yearns
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| 渴望，切盼，向往( yearn的第三人称单数 ) | |
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59
civilizing
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| v.使文明，使开化( civilize的现在分词 ) | |
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60
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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61
forsake
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| vt.遗弃，抛弃；舍弃，放弃 | |
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62
primitiveness
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| 原始，原始性 | |
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63
nomad
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| n.游牧部落的人，流浪者，游牧民 | |
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64
adversaries
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| n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 ) | |
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makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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66
earthenware
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| n.土器，陶器 | |
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67
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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68
graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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69
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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70
mound
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| n.土墩，堤，小山；v.筑堤，用土堆防卫 | |
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71
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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74
clans
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| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
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75
jumble
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| vt.使混乱，混杂；n.混乱；杂乱的一堆 | |
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alleys
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| 胡同，小巷( alley的名词复数 )； 小径 | |
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77
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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descry
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| v.远远看到；发现；责备 | |
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79
mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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shrines
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| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
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ledges
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| n.（墙壁，悬崖等）突出的狭长部分( ledge的名词复数 )；（平窄的）壁架；横档；（尤指）窗台 | |
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adepts
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| n.专家，能手( adept的名词复数 ) | |
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83
subsisting
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的现在分词 ) | |
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prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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85
brotherhoods
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| 兄弟关系( brotherhood的名词复数 )； （总称）同行； （宗教性的）兄弟会； 同业公会 | |
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cleft
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| n.裂缝；adj.裂开的 | |
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niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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precipice
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| n.悬崖，危急的处境 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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subterranean
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| adj.地下的，地表下的 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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93
shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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97
dictate
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| v.口授；(使)听写；指令，指示，命令 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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99
affiliate
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| vt.使隶(附)属于；n.附属机构，分公司 | |
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100
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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101
turquoise
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| n.绿宝石；adj.蓝绿色的 | |
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102
beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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103
arid
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| adj.干旱的；(土地)贫瘠的 | |
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104
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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105
pigments
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| n.（粉状）颜料( pigment的名词复数 )；天然色素 | |
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106
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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107
harassed
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| adj. 疲倦的，厌烦的 动词harass的过去式和过去分词 | |
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108
vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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109
nomads
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| n.游牧部落的一员( nomad的名词复数 )；流浪者；游牧生活；流浪生活 | |
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110
aboriginal
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| adj.（指动植物）土生的，原产地的，土著的 | |
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111
cosmopolitan
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| adj.世界性的，全世界的，四海为家的，全球的 | |
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112
tribal
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| adj.部族的，种族的 | |
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113
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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114
migrations
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| n.迁移，移居( migration的名词复数 ) | |
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115
tributaries
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| n. 支流 | |
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116
alder
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| n.赤杨树 | |
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