Painting is the use of colour and the composition of lines and forms for sheer joy in this{220} particular kind of beauty; for the honouring of the most honourable7 things; for the stimulating8 of high and fine human emotion; for the symbolical9 (and therefore sacramental) expression of spiritual adventures and experiences that so far transcend10 the limitations of the material that they are not susceptible11 of intellectual manifestation12. Painting is primarily and in its highest estate an ally and an aid of architecture, as are also sculpture and (in a less intimate degree) music, poetry, and the drama, all working together for the building up, under the inspiration of religion, of a great stimulus13 and a great expression. As a thing by itself it fails of half its power, but, like all the arts, it can be used in this way, though indifferently and only within certain limitations. To say, therefore, that painting as an art began with Giotto or Cimabue or Duccio, is absurd; there was great painting long before them, and some of it reached heights even they could not attain14. Of course most of it is gone, vanishing with the destroyed or remodelled15 buildings, where it worked intimately with architecture, scraped off by “restorers,” whitewashed16 by iconoclasts17, done over by easel painters, so it is hard to judge it justly, but a few fragments remain in France and Italy{221} that give some idea of its original power and beauty.
Similarly, illumination is not a handicraft or an industrial art; it was frequently great art of a very distinguished18 quality, and so was the painting of carving19 and sculpture, an art not disdained20 by the Van Eycks themselves. From the earliest beginnings of the Middle Ages there was great painting, and the Duccios and Massaccios and Memlings only added to it certain different, and not always admirable, qualities, while devising novel methods that made possible novel modes of expression.
And here enters another misconception that has done much harm: the Van Eycks did not invent oil painting, if by the phrase is meant the oil painting of the nineteenth century. This, the use of mechanically ground pigments21 already mixed with an oil medium, is a trick hardly more than a century old, and is a time-saving device for the obtaining (which it does not succeed in doing), at the least expenditure23 of time and thought, of the effects originally produced by the old method that held from the time of Hubert Van Eyck down to that of Sir Joshua Reynolds. This old method consisted in dividing the work of a painter into{222} three stages—drawing, modelling, colouring—each of which had to be done laboriously24 and to perfection. After the picture had been drawn26 completely and in every detail it was modelled in a thick underpainting of impasto with its varied27 reliefs and textures28, and then the colour was applied29; successive coats of transparent30 pigment22, one imposed on the other, each being allowed to dry before the next was put on. The result was, amongst other things, that depth, resonance31, and transparency of colour that mark the great painting of the past and are absolutely unobtainable by the use of the opaque32 and muddy pigments squeezed out of collapsible tubes. In this earlier method there was no short road to success; a painter could not sweep in his broad masses of paint with a few masterly strokes, masking his lack of proficiency33 in drawing by daring and theatrical34 brush work, and making amends35 for his opaque and unbeautiful colour by a stunning36 exhibition of a delusive37 chiaro-oscuro. Everything was built up laboriously and conscientiously38; it was consummate40 craftsmanship42, with much in common with stained glass, orfèverie, and even with architecture. No wonder a painter’s training frequently began with a goldsmith; it demanded the most exquisite43 and conscientious39 craft{223} and there was no substitute that a public trained in eye and quick in appreciation44 could be induced to accept. Temperament45 was no excuse for incapacity; daring brush work made no amends for lack of competence46; for once painting was on a par3 with the other arts, and a painter was as much a master of craft, and as rigidly47 held to its highest standards, as a musician or a master builder.
Of course there always had been fresco-painting, and here the method was quite different, for the colour had to be applied swiftly and once for all to the wet plaster. Here the technique was direct and instantaneous, quite unlike that of panel painting, and though it was no more adaptable49 to the vagaries50 of temperamental expression, it opened up new possibilities of which painters were always trying to take advantage. Giotto himself, being the greatest master of this particular mode, was always working along these lines, and later Velasquez combined them with the possibilities inherent in the development of underpainting as a thing final in itself, without the laborious25 and studied glazing51 of successive coats of pure colour.
The art of painting was never a rigid48 and immobile system; every painter was striving for{224} new methods and new developments, and frequently finding them; in the end, as the old artistic52 sense died away, virtuosity53 took its place, and this found its opportunity through the elimination55 of all the old elements of craftsmanship and a development of the qualities of breadth and swiftness inherent in fresco-painting, together with the dash and bravura56 that offered themselves through the clever manipulation of the thick and solid and suave57 material of the old underpainting. In a word, the tendency was toward combining drawing, modelling, and colour in one process, obtaining final effects in one operation; and while this meant a possible slouching of drawing, a substitution of surprise and bravado58 for consistent modelling, a loss of all depth and resonance of colour, and the putting of a premium59 on such quite unimportant (and sometimes vicious) matters as dashing brush work, it must be admitted it did permit “temperament” to express itself with a swiftness and mobility60 impossible before, granting always that this is desirable.
Now in the working of this revolution the Van Eycks had no part whatever. They did not invent “oil painting” or anything like it. They{225} were the greatest painter-craftsmen61 ever known, and they and the generations that followed them in Flanders and Italy held faithfully to the old threefold mode of operation until Tintoretto, Velasquez, and Rubens began to merge62 the three in one and to lay the foundations for the present lamentable63 subterfuges64 of the Salon65 and the Royal Academy. What they did do was this: until Hubert’s time every painter had been searching for some medium which would not mitigate66 the perfect transparency of their hand-ground colours and would dry quickly. All kinds of viscous67 things had been employed—white of egg, fig68 juice, and other less seemly media—but none was wholly satisfactory. Oil was the natural thing, but oil was an unconscionable time in drying. Hubert Van Eyck found some oil medium (or varnish) that dried quickly and this at once became the universal medium. It was a great discovery and a great boon69, but it had nothing whatever to do with “oil painting,” which did not actually come into existence until the dark days of the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century, therefore the skirts of the Van Eycks are clear and we can absolve70 them of all responsibility.{226}
There never was a school of such consummate craftsmanship as this of Flanders. The Van Eycks, Memling, Van der Weyden were the most perfectly71 trained, the most comprehensively competent, and the most conscientiously laborious artists ever known; also they understood drawing, composition, and lighting72 as no others ever did, while their sense of beauty of colour, either in itself or in subtle and splendid combinations, was unique. They were not portents73, sudden meteors shooting across a dark sky, they simply continued and developed a long and glorious tradition. Long before them the monasteries74 had been producing great art of every kind—frescos, illuminations, stained glass, embroidery75, painted sculpture—and it was all art of the greatest. When Hubert painted the “Adoration76 of the Lamb,” he merely gathered together all these arts and manifested his enormous and astounding78 synthesis in concentrated form, and better than any one had ever done before. All the intricate delicacy79 of jewel work, all the vivacity80 of clean-cut sculpture, all the suavity81 of silken needlework, all the flaming splendour of stained glass are brought together here in one astonishing combination, and to this era-making synthesis is added the living light and the human appeal of the poignant82 beauty of the world, and the transcendent magic of the supernatural, sacramentally and visibly set forth83.
This, which very well may be the greatest picture in the world (it does not matter), was ordered from Hubert Van Eyck when he was nearly fifty years old, he having been born about 1366 in the province of Limbourg and coming of a long line of painters. It was ordered by Jodocus Vydts, a worthy84 burgher of Ghent, as an altar-piece for a chapel85 he had built and endowed (according to the pious86 and admirable practice of those good Catholic times) in the Cathedral of St. Bavon. For ten years he worked at his masterpiece, and then death overtook him in the year 1426, when his work was only partly finished, when his brother, Jan, took it up and brought it to a triumphant87 conclusion in 1432. It is a great triptych of twenty-two painted panels and its preservation88 has been nothing short of miraculous89. Philip II tried to carry it off in 1558, the Protestants to destroy it in 1566, and the Calvinists to give it away to Queen Elizabeth in 1578. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 1641, dismembered and packed away in 1781, carried off (parts of it) to Paris in 1794. In 1816 most of the wings were{228} sold to a shrewd dealer90 for $20,000 and by him to the Berlin Museum for $80,000; finally the Adam and Eve panels were taken to the Brussels Museum, and a set of copies attached to the mutilated remainder in the Cathedral of St. Bavon.
The work is one vast, comprehensive, and sacramental manifestation of the central Catholic sacrament of the mass, searching and final in its symbolism, consummate in its mastery of all the elements that enter into the make-up of a great work of pictorial and decorative91 art, unapproached and unapproachable in its splendour of living and radiant colour. In its philosophical92 grasp, its technical perfection, its unearthly beauty, its communication of the very essence of a fundamental mystery, and in its evocative power it staggers the imagination and takes its place amongst the few great works of man, in any category, which are so far beyond what seems possible of achievement that they rank as definitely superhuman. So far as its spiritual content is concerned, it can no more be estimated than can the mass itself, or paraphrased93 in words than Chartres Cathedral or a Brahms symphony or the Venus of Melos. If the Van Eycks are responsible for this, they rank with St. Thomas Aquinas and{229} Shakespeare and Leonardo da Vinci as the greatest creative forces amongst men. Of course they were not, nor the others, named. Somehow each was used by something greater than he: the concentrated consciousness of his fellows, the underlying94 and informing time-spirit of an era—or why not God Himself?—as a channel through which and by which absolute truth was communicated to man who, of his own motion, can do much, but not so much as this.
For the consummate artistry, for the perfect sense of decoration and composition, the keen and exquisite line, the perception and recording95 of diversified96 character, the poignant love of all natural beauty and corresponding rejection97 of all ugliness, for the technique which is that of a master in the fashioning of precious metals and the cutting of priceless gems98, for the colour that is now resonant99 with all the deep splendour of great music, now thin and aerial with all the delicacy of far horizons and misty100 forests at some pale dawn in a land of dreams—for all these things we may remember Hubert Van Eyck and his brother Jan, for this is their work, but beyond this we go elsewhere, at least as far as the mass itself, for the inspiration that has made this Flemish triptych{230} one of the great, revealing creations of the world.
The infinite variety of conception and rendition simply transcend experience. The three great, dominating figures—God the Father, Our Lady, and St. John Baptist—are of a Byzantine majesty101 transfused102 by a passionate103 humanism that is almost unique in any form. From them you pass to the central panel of the “Worship of the Lamb That Was Slain,” which is as tender and personal and human as the best of Fra Angelico, and, like his clear visions, irradiated by a kind of paradisal glory that sets it in a heaven of its own; from this you go to the panels of singing angels and splendid attendant knights104 and marching pilgrims that are pages out of the daily record of life in proud and beautiful Bruges, and finally you come to the Adam and Eve who are sheer, unadulterated realism unapproachable in its minute veracity105. Surely, these two men were a type of the universal genius. They balked106 at nothing and found nothing too difficult of accomplishment108, simply because they were perfectly trained and broadly accomplished109 craftsmen who knew that theirs was an exacting110 and a jealous craft for which “temperament”—artistic or otherwise—was not, and could not be made, a substitute.{231}
It is with a feeling almost of relief that we come down nearer the earth and confront the masterpieces of Jan Van Eyck. With Hubert we are taken into a kind of seventh heaven of mystical revelation; with his brother and those that follow we come back to what is more human, more in scale with experience. Great art still, as great as one can find elsewhere, and with all the mastery of methods, all the confident certainty, all the triumphant colour and the exquisite design and the faultless craftsmanship of the painted “Beatific Vision” itself. There once were many other pictures by Hubert Van Eyck, but all now are gone, destroyed by the savage111 hands of Calvinists and Revolutionaries, and the “Adoration of the Lamb” remains112 alone as an isolated113 miracle.
Jan was of another sort; equally great as a craftsman41, he was a fine gentleman, a courtier, the friend of princes, and a diplomat114. In those barbarous days before the culmination115 of the era of enlightenment, art was not a cult107, isolated from life, nor were artists a sort of creature apart, made so by the possession of a then undiscovered and quite pathological affliction called the “artistic temperament.” They were good citizens and an{232} integral part of a like-minded community, serving their kind after many fashions, amongst them being the honourable and admirable craft of art. Of this craft Jan was past master; he painted statues and illuminated116 missals and fashioned stained glass; he created great altar-pieces and produced living portraits of old ecclesiastics117 and worthy burghers and their wives; for all I know he was an architect as well—at all events he might have been, as is proved by the wonderful drawing of St. Barbara with its background of a great Gothic tower under construction. A thoroughly118 typical example of his painting is the St. Donatian altar-piece, a votive picture ordered by the excellent old Canon Van der Paele, who is shown in adoration before Our Lady and the Holy Child and attended by St. Donatian himself and St. George. Mr. Berenson could find no finer example than this of that “space composition” on which he rightly lays such stress; Holbein could paint no more exact and characteristic portraits; all the goldsmiths of Byzantium could not rival the jewel work of armour119 and orphreys, brocades and embroideries120, and sculptures and inlays, while the colour, both in its individual parts and its composition, comes nearer the living light of the windows of Chartres than any other painted colour in the world. One would like to hang this particular picture (for a time only, then replacing it over an altar where alone it belongs) in the midst of a “Rubens Gallery,” or a room in the Luxembourg or the Royal Academy, and call all the world to see.
There is little enough left of Jan’s work, and for the same humiliating reason that holds in the case of his brother. Of Hans Memling, another wonder child, there is fortunately much. When one catalogues the list of this earliest and greatest work in Flanders and recalls the wrecking121 with axe122 and torch of cathedrals, abbeys, convents, hospitals, chateaux by Calvinists and sans-culottes; the pyres of smouldering pictures, the ditches filled up with pulverised glass, shattered statues, illuminated missals and graduales and books of hours; the sacred vessels123 and gorgeous vestments, such as Hubert and Jan, Hans and Gerard showed in their pictures, despoiled124 of their splendid jewels (transferred for a consideration to Hebrew brokers) and melted down or used for chair covers, as the case may be; and when in this lurid125 light one weighs the thick hides and the muddled126 brains and the shrivelled souls{234} of the wreckers against even the mere77 artistic value of their spoils, one marvels127 still more at the wonders of scientific evolution and the promises of evolutionary128 philosophy.
Memling is the third of the great trio of Flemings, and though there were innumerable others whose art was near perfection, these three stand for ever by themselves apart. There is more of human tenderness in his work and a certain spiritualisation informing everything that gives a different quality; the portraiture129 and differentiation130 of character are possibly beyond what any other ever attained131, but his composition as it gains in complexity132 and facile ease loses something of that broad and powerful directness, that supreme133 quality of rhythm and serenity134 that marked the Van Eycks. The colour also is less invariably sonorous135, less pure and splendid and luminous136 both in its single tones and its harmonies, while now and then the universal Flemish passion for sumptuous137 stuffs and gorgeous patterns and glittering accessories betrays him into a loss of unity54 and balance. Still, any criticism is impudent138; his St. Ursula series, his St. John Baptist, his St. Bertin and Floreins and Moreel altar-pieces are amongst the greatest pictures that have been painted, while his portraits are pure life expressed through the terms of pure beauty.
It would be impossible to review all the work of all the great Flemings. Driven by the same impulse, each gave his own personality to all he did, and the sequence is as astonishing as it is priceless. Gerard, David, Roger Van der Weyden, Quentin Metsys, Dierick Bouts139, Lucas Cranach, as well as numberless unknown whose work survives their contemporary fame, all reached their several heights of attainment140 on their own individual lines, and their pictures still remain in Bruges and Ghent, in Brussels and Antwerp (or remain to-day, in August, 1915) to bear witness to the full and vigorous life, the wholesome141 and happy religious devotion, the astonishing physical beauty of Flemish environment of those last years of the fifteenth century in Europe when the fair day of medi?valism came to its golden close.
Between this whole-souled art of the Middle Ages and that of the Renaissance142 came an intervening group that served to effect the necessary modulation143 from one key to quite another. Mabeuse, Van Orley, the younger Porbus, and the Breughels are the chief representatives and through{236} them one sees the old and masculine qualities dying away, the new and alien elements from the south entering in to take possession. When this transition was effected it was in Holland that it found its opportunity, and as the Dutch provinces are outside our consideration we need not consider here the products of a school that ranged in quality from Rubens to Rembrandt, from Frans Hals to Vermeer of Delft. The succession was broken, the torch (with whatever flame that remained) was passed from the Flemings to the Dutch, and only Vandyck appeared in the line of true Flemish descent to demonstrate the possibilities that still remained in spite of Rubens (and at the hands of his own pupil) for the development of a restrained and self-respecting and beautiful art, even though the moving spirit had been dissolved and the great tradition become no more than a memory. The great period of medi?val painting (for it was this in spirit and in truth) had begun and ended in this Cor Cordium, this Flemish concentration of the Heart of Europe. It had begun with the monkish144 illuminations of the fourteenth century, culminated145 in the great century from 1395, when Hubert Van Eyck began to paint, to 1494, when Memling died, and
slowly disappeared under the influence of the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Spanish oppression; by the year 1600 it had ceased to exist, and the Renaissance, which had established itself in all secular146 and ecclesiastical matters, now took over art also for the purpose of developing its own exact expression. The five centuries of Catholic civilisation147 had come to an end.
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1
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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isolate
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| vt.使孤立，隔离 | |
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lyric
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| n.抒情诗，歌词；adj.抒情的 | |
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heresy
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| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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stimulating
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| adj.有启发性的，能激发人思考的 | |
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symbolical
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| a.象征性的 | |
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transcend
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| vt.超出，超越(理性等)的范围 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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remodelled
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| v.改变…的结构[形状]( remodel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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whitewashed
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| 粉饰，美化，掩饰( whitewash的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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iconoclasts
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| n.攻击传统观念的人( iconoclast的名词复数 )；反对崇拜圣像者 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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carving
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| n.雕刻品，雕花 | |
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disdained
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| 鄙视( disdain的过去式和过去分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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pigments
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| n.（粉状）颜料( pigment的名词复数 )；天然色素 | |
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pigment
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| n.天然色素，干粉颜料 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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laboriously
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| adv.艰苦地；费力地；辛勤地；（文体等）佶屈聱牙地 | |
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laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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textures
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| n.手感( texture的名词复数 )；质感；口感；（音乐或文学的）谐和统一感 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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resonance
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| n.洪亮；共鸣；共振 | |
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opaque
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| adj.不透光的；不反光的，不传导的；晦涩的 | |
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proficiency
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| n.精通，熟练，精练 | |
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theatrical
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| adj.剧场的，演戏的；做戏似的，做作的 | |
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amends
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| n. 赔偿 | |
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stunning
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| adj.极好的；使人晕倒的 | |
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delusive
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| adj.欺骗的，妄想的 | |
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conscientiously
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| adv.凭良心地；认真地，负责尽职地；老老实实 | |
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conscientious
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| adj.审慎正直的，认真的，本着良心的 | |
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consummate
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| adj.完美的；v.成婚；使完美 [反]baffle | |
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craftsman
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| n.技工，精于一门工艺的匠人 | |
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craftsmanship
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| n.手艺 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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competence
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| n.能力，胜任，称职 | |
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rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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adaptable
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| adj.能适应的，适应性强的，可改编的 | |
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vagaries
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| n.奇想( vagary的名词复数 )；异想天开；异常行为；难以预测的情况 | |
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51
glazing
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| n.玻璃装配业；玻璃窗；上釉；上光v.装玻璃( glaze的现在分词 )；上釉于，上光；（目光）变得呆滞无神 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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virtuosity
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| n.精湛技巧 | |
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unity
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| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
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elimination
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| n.排除，消除，消灭 | |
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56
bravura
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| n.华美的乐曲；勇敢大胆的表现；adj.壮勇华丽的 | |
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57
suave
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| adj.温和的；柔和的；文雅的 | |
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58
bravado
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| n.虚张声势，故作勇敢，逞能 | |
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59
premium
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| n.加付款；赠品；adj.高级的；售价高的 | |
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60
mobility
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| n.可动性，变动性，情感不定 | |
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61
craftsmen
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| n. 技工 | |
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62
merge
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| v.(使)结合，(使)合并，(使)合为一体 | |
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63
lamentable
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| adj.令人惋惜的，悔恨的 | |
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64
subterfuges
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| n.（用说谎或欺骗以逃脱责备、困难等的）花招，遁词( subterfuge的名词复数 ) | |
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65
salon
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| n.[法]沙龙；客厅；营业性的高级服务室 | |
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66
mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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67
viscous
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| adj.粘滞的，粘性的 | |
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68
fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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69
boon
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| n.恩赐，恩物，恩惠 | |
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70
absolve
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| v.赦免，解除（责任等） | |
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71
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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72
lighting
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| n.照明，光线的明暗，舞台灯光 | |
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73
portents
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| n.预兆( portent的名词复数 )；征兆；怪事；奇物 | |
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74
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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75
embroidery
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| n.绣花，刺绣；绣制品 | |
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76
adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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77
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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78
astounding
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| adj.使人震惊的vt.使震惊，使大吃一惊astound的现在分词) | |
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79
delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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80
vivacity
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| n.快活，活泼，精神充沛 | |
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81
suavity
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| n.温和；殷勤 | |
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82
poignant
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| adj.令人痛苦的，辛酸的，惨痛的 | |
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83
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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84
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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85
chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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86
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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87
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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88
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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89
miraculous
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| adj.像奇迹一样的，不可思议的 | |
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90
dealer
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| n.商人，贩子 | |
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91
decorative
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| adj.装饰的，可作装饰的 | |
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92
philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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93
paraphrased
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| v.释义，意译( paraphrase的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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94
underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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95
recording
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| n.录音，记录 | |
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96
diversified
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| adj.多样化的，多种经营的v.使多样化，多样化( diversify的过去式和过去分词 )；进入新的商业领域 | |
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97
rejection
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| n.拒绝，被拒，抛弃，被弃 | |
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98
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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99
resonant
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| adj.(声音)洪亮的，共鸣的 | |
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100
misty
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| adj.雾蒙蒙的，有雾的 | |
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101
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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102
transfused
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| v.输（血或别的液体）( transfuse的过去式和过去分词 )；渗透；使…被灌输或传达 | |
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103
passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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104
knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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105
veracity
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| n.诚实 | |
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106
balked
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| v.畏缩不前，犹豫( balk的过去式和过去分词 )；（指马）不肯跑 | |
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107
cult
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| n.异教，邪教；时尚，狂热的崇拜 | |
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108
accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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109
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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110
exacting
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| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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111
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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112
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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113
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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114
diplomat
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| n.外交官，外交家；能交际的人，圆滑的人 | |
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115
culmination
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| n.顶点；最高潮 | |
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116
illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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117
ecclesiastics
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| n.神职者，教会，牧师( ecclesiastic的名词复数 ) | |
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118
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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119
armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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120
embroideries
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| 刺绣( embroidery的名词复数 )； 刺绣品； 刺绣法 | |
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121
wrecking
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| 破坏 | |
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122
axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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123
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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124
despoiled
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| v.掠夺，抢劫( despoil的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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125
lurid
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| adj.可怕的；血红的；苍白的 | |
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126
muddled
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| adj.混乱的；糊涂的；头脑昏昏然的v.弄乱，弄糟( muddle的过去式)；使糊涂；对付，混日子 | |
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127
marvels
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| n.奇迹( marvel的名词复数 )；令人惊奇的事物（或事例）；不平凡的成果；成就v.惊奇，对…感到惊奇( marvel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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128
evolutionary
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| adj.进化的；演化的，演变的；[生]进化论的 | |
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129
portraiture
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| n.肖像画法 | |
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130
differentiation
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| n.区别，区分 | |
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131
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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132
complexity
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| n.复杂(性)，复杂的事物 | |
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133
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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134
serenity
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| n.宁静，沉着，晴朗 | |
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135
sonorous
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| adj.响亮的，回响的；adv.圆润低沉地；感人地；n.感人，堂皇 | |
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136
luminous
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| adj.发光的，发亮的；光明的；明白易懂的；有启发的 | |
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137
sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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138
impudent
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| adj.鲁莽的，卑鄙的，厚颜无耻的 | |
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139
bouts
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| n.拳击（或摔跤）比赛( bout的名词复数 )；一段（工作）；（尤指坏事的）一通；（疾病的）发作 | |
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140
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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141
wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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142
renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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143
modulation
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| n.调制 | |
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144
monkish
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| adj.僧侣的，修道士的，禁欲的 | |
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145
culminated
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| v.达到极点( culminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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146
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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147
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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