Birds exercised a strong influence on prehistoric4 religion, having been worshipped as gods in the earlier days and later looked upon as representatives of the higher powers. The Greeks went so far as to attribute the origin of the world itself to the egg of some mysterious bird. To others, these small creatures flitting about among our trees, represented the visible spirits of departed friends. The Aztecs believed that the good, as a reward of merit, were metamorphosed at the close of life into feathered songsters, and as such were permitted to pass a certain term in the beautiful groves of Paradise. To them, as to all North American Indians, thunder was the cloud bird flapping his mighty5 wings, while the lightning was the flash of his eye. The people of other countries believed that higher powers showed their displeasure by transforming wrong-doers into birds and animals as a punishment for their crimes.
In all lands birds were invested with the power of prophecy. They were believed to possess superior intelligence through being twice-born, once as an egg, and again as an animal. Because of their wisdom, not only they, but their graven images also, were consulted on all important affairs of life. Many nations, notably7 the Japanese, are still believers in the direct communication between man and unseen beings, through birds and other agents. In their country, birds are regarded as sacred, and for this reason the agriculturist gladly shares with them the fruit of his toil8.
While we of to-day attach no supernatural significance to the presence of these feathered songsters, and even though to us they possess no powers of prophecy, we can find a great deal of pleasure in observing these beings whose boding9 cries were regarded as omens10 by the greatest of earth—beings whose actions in Vespasian's time were considered of vital national importance.
Aside from their historic and literary interest, these multitudinous, and often contradictory12, legends and superstitions are of interest to us as a part of the faith of our fathers, much of which, combined with other and higher things, is in us yet. These beliefs of theirs, like many of what we are pleased to think are original ideas and opinions to-day, were hereditary13 and largely a matter of geography.
In ancient times the chief birds of portent14 were the raven6 or crow, the owl15 and the woodpecker, though there were a number of others on the prophetic list.
As an example of interest let us consider our friend the raven and his congener the crow, who are so confused in literature, as well as in the minds of those not familiar with ornithological16 classification, that it is almost impossible to treat them separately. The raven is a larger bird and not quite so widely distributed as the crow, but in general appearance and habits they are practically the same.
If tradition is to be credited, we are more indebted to this bird of ancient family than to any other feathered creature, for he has played an important part in history, sacred and profane17, in literature, and in art.
On the authority of the Koran we know that it was he who first taught man to bury his dead. When Cain did not know what disposition18 to make of the body of his slain19 brother, "God sent a raven, who killed another raven in his presence and then dug a pit with his beak20 and claws and buried him therein." It was the raven whom Noah sent forth21 to learn whether the waters had abated—one of the rare instances wherein he ever proved faithless to his trust—and it was he who gave sustenance22 to the prophet Elijah.
In Norse mythology23, Odin, the greatest of all the gods, the raven's God, had for his chief advisers24 two ravens25, Hugin and Munin (Mind and Memory), who were sent out by him each morning on newsgathering journeys, and who returned to him at nightfall to perch27 on his shoulders and whisper into his ears intelligence of the day. When news of unusual importance was desired, Odin himself in raven guise28 went forth to seek it, and when the Norse armies went into battle they followed the raven standard, a banner under which William the Conqueror29 fought. When bellied30 by the breezes it betokened31 success, but when it hung limp, only defeat was expected.
Norse navigators took with them a pair of ravens to be liberated32 and followed as guides; if the bird returned it was known that land did not lie in that direction; if they did not, they were followed. The discoveries of both Iceland and Greenland are attributed to their leadership.
To the Romans and Greeks the raven was the chief bird of omen11, whose effigy33 was borne on their banners, and whose auguries34 were followed with greatest confidence, while to the German mind he was his satanic majesty36 made manifest in feathers. In some parts of Germany these birds are believed to hold the souls of the damned, while in other European sections priests only are believed to be so reincarnated37.
In Sweden the ravens croaking38 at night in the swamps are said to be the ghosts of murdered persons who have been denied Christian39 burial, and whom on this account Charon has refused ferriage across the River Styx.
As a companion of saints this bird has had too many experiences to mention.
By some nations he was regarded as the bearer of propitious40 news from the gods—and sacrosanct41, to others he was the precursor42 of evil and an object of dread43. With divining power, which enabled him for ages to tell the farmer of coming rain, the maiden44 of the coming of her lover and the invalid45 of the coming of death, he was received with joy or sadness, according to the messages he bore.
In England he was looked upon with greater favor; there the mere46 presence of the home of a raven in a tree-top was enough to insure the continuance in power of the family owning the estate.
The wealth of raven literature bears indubitable testimony47 to the interest people of all times and all localities have felt in this remarkable48 bird—an interest certain to increase with acquaintance.
To one with mind open to rural charm, this picturesque49 bird, solemnly stalking about the fields, or majestically50 flapping his way to the treetops, is as much a part of the landscape as the fields themselves, or the trees upon their borders; it possesses an interest different from that of any other creature of the feathered race. Though he no longer pursues the craft of the augur35, his superior intelligence, great dignity and general air of mystery inspire confidence in his abilities in that line.
What powers were his in the old days! Foolish maidens51 and ignorant sailors might put their faith in the divining powers of the flighty wren52; others might consult the swallow and the kingfisher; but it was to the "many-wintered crow" that kings and the great ones of earth applied53 for advice, and it was he who never failed them. According to Pliny, he was the only bird capable of realizing the meaning of his portents54.
In the early morning light the worthy55 successors of the ancient Hugin and Munin go forth to-day in quest of news of interest to their clan56, just as those historic messengers did in the days when the mighty Norse gods awaited their return, that they might act on the intelligence gathered by them during the daylight hours; and when slanting57 beams call forth the vesper songs of more tuneful birds, they return, followed by long lines of other crows, to their usual haunts on the borders of the marshes58. Singly or in long lines, never in loose flocks like blackbirds, they arrive from all directions, till what must be the whole tribe is gathered together—a united family—for the night's repose59.
As there in the treetops in the early evening, in convention assembled, they discuss important affairs, who can doubt that certain ones of their number are recognized as leaders, and that they have some form of government among themselves? One after another delivers himself of a harangue60, then the whole assemblage joins in noisy applause—or is it disapproval61? At other times sociability62 seems to be the sole object of the gathering26.
As one old crow, more meditative63 than the rest, at the close of the conclave64 always betakes himself to the same perch, the lonely, up-thrust shaft65 of a lightning-shattered tree on the hillside, we decide that here is old Munin, who has selected this perch as one favorable to meditation—a place where he may ponder undisturbed over the occurrences of the day.
Others among the group have habits as fixed66 and noticeable. Even though approaching his perch from the opposite direction, one will be seen to circle and draw near it from the accustomed side; some of the more decided67 ones will invariably remain just where they alight; others will turn around and arrange themselves on their perches68 indefinitely. In the fields it will be noticed that some are socially inclined and forage69 in groups, while others, either from personal choice or that of their neighbors, are more solitary70. Like members of the human family, each has his own individual characteristic.
While the chief charm of the crow is his intelligence, his dignity also claims our attention. Who ever saw one of his tribe do anything foolish or unbecoming to the funeral director he has been ever since the birth of time, and that he must ever be while time endures? The ancients believed him to be able to scent71 a funeral several days before death occurred, so sensitive was he to mortuary influences, and there is little doubt he still possesses the power to discern approaching death in many creatures smaller than himself—and to whom he expects to extend the rite72 of sepulchre. Inside and out he is clothed in deepest black; even his tongue and the inside of his mouth are in mourning. Seeming to think it incumbent73 on him to live up to his funeral garb74 and occupation, faithful to his trust, with clerical solemnity he goes about his everyday duties.
Gazing on them from his watchtower in the tree tops, what does this grave creature think of the gayer birds that dwell in the meadows and groves round about? What thinks he of the clownish bobolink, in motley nuptial75 livery, pouring out his silly soul in gurgling, rollicking song, in his efforts to please a possible mate, then quarreling with both her and his rivals, who also have donned cap and bell to win her favor? What of the unpretentious home—a mere hollow in the ground—where the care-free pair go to housekeeping? What of the redwings building their nests among the reeds in the midst of the marsh—so low as almost to touch the water? Of the fitful wren, incessantly76 singing of love to his mate, yet who fails to assist her in nest-building, and who proves but an indifferent provider for his young family? Of the lonely phoebe, calling in plaintive77, mysterious tones to a mate unresponsive to his sorrowful beseechings? Of the robin78, who makes of the grove2 a sanctuary79? He doubtless has his opinions concerning every one of them, for he views them all with interest. Hearing all the other birds singing their love and seeing them winning favor with their brilliant colors, does he envy them?
On the theory of compensation, his sterling80 qualities render accomplishments81 and decorative82 raiment unnecessary. With no song in which to tell his story, and no garments gay to captivate the eye, the crow must needs live his love—and he does—to the end. Seriously he wins the mate to whom he remains83 true forever. To him the marital84 bond is not the mere tie of a season, but one that holds through life. He assists the dusky bride of his choice in establishing a commodious85 home in the most commanding situation available—the top of the tallest tree in the edge of the wood, and which may have been planted by one of his ancestors. He assists her in giving warmth to their eggs in the nest. He carries food to her while she broods over them. He braves every danger in protecting both her and them against predatory hawks86 and owls87 and frolicking squirrels, to whom he is known as the "warrior88 crow." With tenderest solicitude89 he relieves his mate as far as he can in ministering to their nestlings.
And what of the young crows in the nest? When their elders are away on commissary tours, the young ones, bewailing the absence of parents almost constantly, are always found, on the return, in attitudes of expectancy90. To them the approach of older crows, even though it be from the left, is never ominous91 of anything but good. And when after many excursions baby appetites have been satisfied, in their lofty cradles in the tree tops, the infant crows are rocked by the breezes, and though the tuneless throats of the parents yield no songs they are not without music, for soft ?olian lullabies soothe92 them to sleep.
On hearing farmers talk, one would think that the diet of the crow is entirely93 granivorous, while no bird has a more adaptable94 appetite; everything eatable is perfectly95 acceptable—harmful grubs, beetles96, worms, young rats, mice, snakes and moles97, as well as mollusks, acorns98, nuts, wild fruit and berries are among his staple99 articles of diet. And, though it is no longer believed that "he shakes contagion100 from his ominous wing," he occasions a lamentable101 amount of infant mortality among rabbits, and squirrels, and even among weak-limbed lambs, depriving them of health, strength and happiness—but not through magic. These last he attacks in the eye, as the most vulnerable point. In the old days he is reputed to have met with great success as an oculist102; in these his patients never recover.
In winter, when cereal stores and acorns which supply the season's want lie buried in the snow, and when such animals as in youth were ready prey103 have grown to a more formidable majority, crows frequently suffer and perish from hunger, and when snows lie long on the ground many of them are found dead beneath their roosting places.
The voice of the crow when heard distinctly has in it something of the winter's harshness and seems to harmonize best with winter sounds—creaking boughs104 and shrieking105 winds—but when modulated106 by distance it is not unmusical. In the twilight107, when calling to his belated brethren across the marshes, his uncanny call might well be taken for the cry of a lost soul craving108 Christian burial. Yet this might depend on one's mood. To each he seems to speak a different language. To St. Athanasius he said: "Cras, cras!" (To-morrow, to-morrow). To the sympathetic Tennyson he always called, in tenderest accents, the name "Maud."
Though this bird is said to have no tongue for expressing the happier emotions, the voice of the mother crow when soothing109 her nestlings, with gurgling notes of endearment110, is tender as the robin's; and the head of the family, though croaking savagely111 when his mate is molested112, and though able to send an exultant113 "caw" after a retreating enemy, never lowers himself by scolding as the jay does.
Whatever his faults may be—and they are many—to anyone taking the trouble to study the crow, either in captivity114 or in his native environment, he will prove the most interesting example of his race, an agreeable companion, an ideal home-maker, a thrifty115 being, a liberal provider, an able defender116 of his family, a destroyer of harmful insect and animal life, a burier of the dead, a creature of dignity, a keen observer, and the intellectual marvel117 of the bird world.
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1
groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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grove
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| n.林子，小树林，园林 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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prehistoric
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| adj.（有记载的）历史以前的，史前的，古老的 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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raven
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| n.渡鸟，乌鸦；adj.乌亮的 | |
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notably
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| adv.值得注意地，显著地，尤其地，特别地 | |
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toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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boding
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| adj.凶兆的，先兆的n.凶兆，前兆，预感v.预示，预告，预言( bode的现在分词 )；等待，停留( bide的过去分词 )；居住；（过去式用bided）等待 | |
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omens
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| n.前兆，预兆( omen的名词复数 ) | |
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omen
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| n.征兆，预兆；vt.预示 | |
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contradictory
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| adj.反驳的，反对的，抗辩的；n.正反对，矛盾对立 | |
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hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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portent
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| n.预兆；恶兆；怪事 | |
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owl
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| n.猫头鹰，枭 | |
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ornithological
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| adj.鸟类学的 | |
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profane
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| adj.亵神的，亵渎的；vt.亵渎，玷污 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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beak
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| n.鸟嘴，茶壶嘴，钩形鼻 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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advisers
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| 顾问，劝告者( adviser的名词复数 )； （指导大学新生学科问题等的）指导教授 | |
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ravens
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| n.低质煤；渡鸦( raven的名词复数 ) | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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perch
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| n.栖木，高位，杆；v.栖息，就位，位于 | |
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guise
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| n.外表，伪装的姿态 | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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bellied
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| adj.有腹的，大肚子的 | |
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betokened
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| v.预示，表示( betoken的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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effigy
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| n.肖像 | |
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auguries
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| n.（古罗马）占卜术，占卜仪式( augury的名词复数 )；预兆 | |
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augur
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| n.占卦师；v.占卦 | |
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majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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reincarnated
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| v.赋予新形体，使转世化身( reincarnate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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croaking
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| v.呱呱地叫( croak的现在分词 )；用粗的声音说 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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propitious
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| adj.吉利的；顺利的 | |
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sacrosanct
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| adj.神圣不可侵犯的 | |
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precursor
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| n.先驱者；前辈；前任；预兆；先兆 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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maiden
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| n.少女，处女；adj.未婚的，纯洁的，无经验的 | |
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invalid
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| n.病人，伤残人；adj.有病的，伤残的；无效的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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majestically
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| 雄伟地； 庄重地； 威严地； 崇高地 | |
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maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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wren
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| n.鹪鹩；英国皇家海军女子服务队成员 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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portents
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| n.预兆( portent的名词复数 )；征兆；怪事；奇物 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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slanting
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| 倾斜的，歪斜的 | |
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marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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harangue
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| n.慷慨冗长的训话，言辞激烈的讲话 | |
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disapproval
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| n.反对，不赞成 | |
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sociability
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| n.好交际，社交性，善于交际 | |
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meditative
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| adj.沉思的，冥想的 | |
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conclave
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| n.秘密会议，红衣主教团 | |
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shaft
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| n.(工具的)柄，杆状物 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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perches
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| 栖息处( perch的名词复数 )； 栖枝； 高处； 鲈鱼 | |
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forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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scent
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| n.气味，香味，香水，线索，嗅觉；v.嗅，发觉 | |
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rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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nuptial
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| adj.婚姻的，婚礼的 | |
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incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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plaintive
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| adj.可怜的，伤心的 | |
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robin
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| n.知更鸟，红襟鸟 | |
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sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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sterling
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| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
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accomplishments
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| n.造诣；完成( accomplishment的名词复数 )；技能；成绩；成就 | |
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decorative
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| adj.装饰的，可作装饰的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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marital
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| adj.婚姻的，夫妻的 | |
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commodious
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| adj.宽敞的；使用方便的 | |
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hawks
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| 鹰( hawk的名词复数 )； 鹰派人物，主战派人物 | |
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owls
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| n.猫头鹰( owl的名词复数 ) | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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solicitude
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| n.焦虑 | |
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expectancy
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| n.期望，预期，（根据概率统计求得）预期数额 | |
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ominous
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| adj.不祥的，不吉的，预兆的，预示的 | |
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soothe
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| v.安慰；使平静；使减轻；缓和；奉承 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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adaptable
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| adj.能适应的，适应性强的，可改编的 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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beetles
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| n.甲虫( beetle的名词复数 ) | |
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moles
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| 防波堤( mole的名词复数 )； 鼹鼠； 痣； 间谍 | |
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acorns
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| n.橡子，栎实( acorn的名词复数 ) | |
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staple
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| n.主要产物，常用品，主要要素，原料，订书钉，钩环；adj.主要的，重要的；vt.分类 | |
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contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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lamentable
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| adj.令人惋惜的，悔恨的 | |
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oculist
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| n.眼科医生 | |
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103
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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shrieking
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| v.尖叫( shriek的现在分词 ) | |
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modulated
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| 已调整[制]的，被调的 | |
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twilight
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| n.暮光，黄昏；暮年，晚期，衰落时期 | |
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craving
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| n.渴望,热望 | |
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soothing
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| adj.慰藉的；使人宽心的；镇静的 | |
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endearment
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| n.表示亲爱的行为 | |
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savagely
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| adv. 野蛮地，残酷地 | |
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112
molested
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| v.骚扰( molest的过去式和过去分词 )；干扰；调戏；猥亵 | |
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exultant
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| adj.欢腾的，狂欢的，大喜的 | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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115
thrifty
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| adj.节俭的；兴旺的；健壮的 | |
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defender
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| n.保卫者，拥护者，辩护人 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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