During the period we have just been considering, the most marked peculiarity1 was, the struggle between Protestantism and Romanism. It is true that objects of personal ambition also occupied the minds of princes, and many great events occurred, which were not connected with the struggles for religious liberty and light. But the great feature of the age was the insurrection of human intelligence. There was a spirit of innovation, which nothing could suppress, and this was directed, in the main, to matters of religion. The conflict was not between church and state, but between two great factions2 in each. "No man asked whether another belonged to the same country as himself, but whether he belonged to the same sect3." Luther, Calvin, Zwingle, Knox, Cranmer, and Bacon were the great pioneers in this march of innovation. They wished to explode the ideas of the middle ages, in philosophy and in religion. They made war upon the Roman Catholic Church, as the great supporter and defender4 of old ideas. They renounced5 her authority. The Roman Power in the Seventeenth Century. She summoned her friends and vassals6, rallied all her forces, and, with desperate energy, resolved to put down the spirit of reform. The struggles of the Protestants in England, Germany, France, and the Netherlands, alike manifested the same spirit, were produced by the same causes, and brought forth7 the same results. The insurrection was not suppressed.
The hostile movements of Rome, for a while, were carried on by armies, massacres9, assassinations10, and inquisitions. The duke of Alva's cruelties in the Netherlands, St. Bartholomew's massacre8 in France, inquisitorial tortures in Spain, and Smithfield burnings in England, illustrate11 this assertion. But more subtle and artful agents were required, especially since violence had failed. Men of simple lives, of undoubted piety12, of earnest zeal13, and singular disinterestedness14 to their cause, arose, and did what the sword and the stake could not do,—revived Catholicism, and caused a reaction to Protestantism itself. Rise of the Jesuits. These men were Jesuits, the most faithful, intrepid15, and successful soldiers that ever enlisted16 under the banners of Rome. The rise and fortunes of this order of monks17 form one of the most important and interesting chapters in the history of the human race. Their victories, and the spirit which achieved them, are well worth our notice. In considering them, it must be borne in mind, that the Jesuits have exhibited traits so dissimilar and contradictory19, that it is difficult to form a just judgment20. While they were achieving their victories, they appeared in a totally different light from what distinguished21 them when they reposed22 on their laurels23. In short, the earlier and the latter Jesuits were entirely24 different in their moral and social aspects, although they had the same external organization. The principles of their system were always the same. The men who defended them, at first, were marked by great virtues25, but afterwards were deformed27 by equally as great vices28. It was in the early days of Jesuitism that the events we have recorded took place. Hence our notice, at present, will be confined to the Jesuits when they were worthy29 of respect, and, in some things, even of admiration30. Their courage, fidelity31, zeal, learning, and intrepidity32 for half a century, have not been exaggerated.
The founder33 of the order was Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish gentleman of noble birth, who first appeared as a soldier at the siege of Pampeluna, where he was wounded, about the time that Luther was writing his theses, and disputing about indulgences. He amused himself, on his sick bed, by reading the lives of the saints. His enthusiastic mind was affected34, and he resolved to pass from worldly to spiritual knighthood. He became a saint, after the notions of the age; that is, he fasted, wore sackcloth, lived on roots and herbs, practised austerities, retired35 to lonely places, and spent his time in contemplation and prayer. The people were attracted by his sanctity, and followed him in crowds. His heart burned to convert heretics; and, to prepare himself for his mission, he went to the universities, and devoted37 himself to study. There he made some distinguished converts, all of whom afterwards became famous. In his narrow cell, at Paris, he induced Francis Xavier, Faber, Laynez Bobadilla, and Rodriguez to embrace his views, and to form themselves into an association, for the conversion38 of the world. On the summit of Montmartre, these six young men, on one star-lit night, took the usual monastic vows39 of poverty, chastity, and obedience40, and solemnly devoted themselves to their new mission.
They then went to Rome, to induce the pope to constitute them a new missionary41 order. But they were ridiculed42 as fanatics43. Moreover, for several centuries, there had been great opposition45 in Rome against the institution of new monastic orders. It was thought that there were orders enough; that the old should be reformed, not new ones created. Even St. Dominic and St. Francis had great difficulty in getting their orders instituted. But Loyola and his companions made extraordinary offers. They professed46 their willingness to go wherever the pope should send them, among Turks, heathens, or heretics, instantly, without condition, or reward.
How could the pope refuse to license47 them? His empire was in danger; Luther was in the midst of his victories; the power of ideas and truth was shaking to its centre the pontifical48 throne; all the old orders had become degenerate49 and inefficient50, and the pope did not know where to look for efficient support. The venerable Benedictines were revelling51 in the wealth of their splendid abbeys, while the Dominicans and the Franciscans had become itinerant52 vagabonds, peddling53 relics54 and indulgences, and forgetful of those stern duties and virtues which originally characterized them. All the monks were inexhaustible subjects of sarcasm55 and mockery. They even made scholasticism ridiculous, and the papal dogmas contemptible56. Erasmus laughed at them, and Luther mocked them. They were sensual, lazy, ignorant, and corrupt57. The pope did not want such soldiers. But the followers58 of Loyola were full of ardor59, talent, and zeal; willing to do any thing for a sinking cause; able to do any thing, so far as human will can avail. And they did not disappoint the pope. Rapid Spread of the Jesuit Order. Great additions were made. They increased with marvellous rapidity. The zealous60, devout61, and energetic, throughout all ranks in the Catholic church, joined them. They spread into all lands. They became the confessors of kings, the teachers of youth, the most popular preachers, the most successful missionaries62. In sixteen years after the scene of Montmartre, Loyola had established his society in the affections and confidence of Catholic Europe, against the voice of universities, the fears of monarchs63, and the jealousy64 of the other monastic orders. In sixteen years, from the condition of a ridiculed fanatic44, whose voice, however, would have been disregarded a century earlier or later, he became one of the most powerful dignitaries of the church, influencing the councils of the Vatican, moving the minds of kings, controlling the souls of a numerous fraternity, and making his power felt, even in the courts of Japan and China. Before he died, his spiritual sons had planted their missionary stations amid Peruvian mines, amid the marts of the African slave trade, in the islands of the Indian Ocean, and in the cities of Japan and China. Nay65, his followers had secured the most important chairs in the universities of Europe, and had become confessors to the most powerful monarchs, teachers in the best schools of Christendom, and preachers in its principal pulpits. They had become an organization, instinct with life, endued66 with energy and will, and forming a body which could outwatch Argus with his hundred eyes, and outwork Briareus with his hundred arms. It had forty thousand eyes open upon every cabinet and private family in Europe, and forty thousand arms extended over the necks of both sovereigns and people. It had become a mighty67 power in the world, inseparably connected with the education and the religion of the age, the prime mover of all political affairs, the grand prop68 of absolute monarchies69, the last hope of the papal hierarchy70.
The sudden Rapid Spread of the Jesuits. growth and enormous resources of the "Society of Jesus" impress us with feelings of amazement71 and awe72. We almost attribute them to the agency of mysterious powers, and forget the operations of natural causes. The history of society shows that no body of men ever obtained a wide-spread ascendency, except by the exercise of remarkable73 qualities of mind and heart. And this is the reason why the Jesuits prospered74. When Catholic Europe saw young men, born to fortune and honors, voluntarily surrendering their rank and goods, devoting themselves to religious duties, spending their days in hospitals and schools, wandering, as missionaries, into the most unknown and dangerous parts of the world, exciting the young to study, making great attainments75 in all departments of literature and science, and shedding a light, wherever they went, by their genius and disinterestedness, it was natural that they would be received as preachers, teachers, and confessors. That they were characterized, during the first fifty years, by such excellencies, has never been denied. The Jesuit missionary called forth the praises of Baxter, and the panegyric76 of Leibnitz. He went forth, without fear, to encounter the most dreaded77 dangers. Martyrdom was nothing to him, for he knew that the altar, which might stream with his blood, would, in after times, be a cherished monument of his fame, and an impressive emblem78 of the power of his religion. Francis Xavier, one of the first converts of Loyola, a Spaniard of rank, traversed a tract36 of more than twice the circumference79 of the globe, preaching, disputing, and baptizing, until seventy thousand converts attested80 the fruits of his mission. In perils81, fastings, and fatigues82, was the life of this remarkable man passed, to convert the heathen world; and his labors83 have never been equalled, as a missionary, except by the apostle Paul. But China and Japan were not the only scenes of the enterprises of Jesuit missionaries. As early as 1634, they penetrated84 into Canada, and, shortly after to the sources of the Mississippi and the prairies of Illinois. "My companion," said the fearless Marquette, "is an envoy85 of France, to discover new countries; but I am an ambassador of God, to enlighten them with the gospel." But of all the missions of the Jesuits, those in Paraguay were the most successful. They there gathered together, in reductions, or villages, three hundred thousand Indians, and these were bound together by a common interest, were controlled by a paternal86 authority, taught useful arts, and trained to enjoy the blessings87 of civilization. On the distant banks of the La Plata, while the Spanish colonists88 were hunting the Mexicans and Peruvians with bloodhounds, or the English slave traders were consigning89 to eternal bondage90 the unhappy Africans, the Jesuits were realizing the ideal paradise of More—a Utopia, where no murders or robberies were committed, and where the blessed flowers of peace and harmony bloomed in a garden of almost primeval loveliness.
In that age, the Extraordinary Virtues of the Older Jesuits. Jesuit excelled in any work to which he devoted his attention. He was not only an intrepid missionary, but a most successful teacher. Into the work of education he entered heart and soul. He taught gratuitously91, without any crabbed92 harshness, and with a view to gain the heart. He entered into the feelings of his pupils, and taught them to subdue93 their tempers, and avoid quarrels and oaths. He excited them to enthusiasm, perceived their merits, and rewarded the successful with presents and favors. Hence the schools of the Jesuits were the best in Europe, and were highly praised even by the Protestants. The Jesuits were even more popular as preachers than they were as teachers; and they were equally prized as confessors. They were so successful and so respected, that they soon obtained an ascendency in Europe. Veneration94 secured wealth, and their establishments gradually became magnificently endowed. But all their influence was directed to one single end—to the building up of the power of the popes, whose obedient servants they were. Can we wonder that Catholicism should revive?
Again, The Constitution of the Jesuits. their constitution was wonderful, and admirably adapted to the ends they had in view. Their vows were indeed substantially the same as those of other monks, but there was among them a more practical spirit of obedience. All the members were controlled by a single will—all were passive, instruments in the hands of the general of the order. He appointed presidents of colleges and of religious houses; admitted, dismissed, dispensed95, and punished at his pleasure. His power was irresponsible, and for life. From his will there was no appeal. There were among them many gradations in rank, but each gradation was a gradation in slavery. The Jesuit was bound to obey even his own servant, if required by a superior. Obedience was the soul of the institution, absolute, unconditional96, and unreserved—even the submission97 of the will, to the entire abnegation of self. The Jesuit gloried in being made a puppet, a piece of machinery98, like a soldier, if the loss of his intellectual independence would advance the interests of his order. The esprit de corps99 was perfectly100 wonderful, and this spirit was one secret of the disinterestedness of the body. "Ad majorem Dei gloriam," was the motto emblazoned on their standards, and written on their hearts; but this glory of God was synonymous with the ascendency of their association.
The unconditional obedience to a single will, which is the genius of Jesuitism, while it signally advanced the interests of the body, and of the pope, to whom they were devoted, still led to the most detestable and resistless spiritual despotism ever exercised by man. The Jesuit, especially when obscure and humble101, was a tool, rather than an intriguer102. He was bound hand and foot by the orders of his superiors, and they alone were responsible for his actions.
We can easily see how the extraordinary virtues and attainments of the early Jesuits, and the wonderful mechanism103 of their system, would promote the growth of the order and the interests of Rome, before the suspicions of good people would be aroused. Degeneracy of the Jesuits. It was a long time after their piety had passed to fraud, their simplicity104 to cunning, their poverty to wealth, their humility105 to pride, and their indifference106 to the world to cabals107, intrigues108, and crimes, before the change was felt. And, moreover, it was more than a century before the fruits of the system were fully109 reaped. With all the excellences110 of their schools and missions, dangerous notions and customs were taught in them, which gradually destroyed their efficacy. A bad system often works well for a while, but always carries the seeds of decay and ruin. It was so with the institution of Loyola, in spite of the enthusiasm and sincerity111 of the early members, and the masterly wisdom displayed by the founders112. In after times, evils were perceived, which had, at first, escaped the eye. It was seen that the system of education, though specious113, and, in many respects, excellent, was calculated to narrow the mind, while it filled it with knowledge. Young men, in their colleges, were taught blindly to follow a rigid114 mechanical code; they were closely watched; all books were taken from them of a liberal tendency; mutilated editions of such as could not be denied only were allowed; truths of great importance were concealed115 or glossed116 over; exploded errors were revived, and studies recommended which had no reference to the discussion of abstract questions on government or religion. And the boys were made spies on each other, their spirits were broken, and their tastes perverted117. The Jesuits sought to guard the avenues to thought, not to open them, were jealous of all independence of mind, and never sought to go beyond their age, or base any movement on ideal standards.
Again, as preachers, though popular and eloquent118, they devoted their talents to convert men to the Roman church rather than to God. They were Evils in the Jesuit System. bigoted119 sectarians; strove to make men Catholics rather than Christians120. As missionaries, they were content with a mere121 nominal122 conversion. They gave men the crucifix, but not the Bible, and even permitted their converts to retain many of their ancient superstitions123 and prejudices. And thus they usurped124 the authority of native rulers, and sought to impose on China and Japan their despotic yoke125. They greatly enriched themselves in consequence of the credulity of the natives, whom they flattered, and wielded126 an unlawful power. And this is one reason why they were expelled, and why they made no permanent conquests among the millions they converted in Japan. They wished not only to subjugate127 the European, but the Asiatic mind. Europe did not present a field sufficiently128 extensive for their cupidity129 and ambition.
Finally, as confessors, they were peculiarly indulgent to those who sought absolution, provided their submission was complete. Then it was seen what an easy thing it was to bear the yoke of Christ. The offender130 was told that sin consisted in wilfulness131, and wilfulness in the perfect knowledge of the nature of sin, according to which doctrine132 blindness and passion were sufficient exculpations. They invented the doctrine of mental reservation, on which Pascal was so severe. Perjury133 was allowable, if the perjured134 were inwardly determined135 not to swear. A man might fight a duel136, if in danger of being stigmatized137 as a coward; he might betray his friend, if he could thus benefit his party. The Jesuits invented a system of casuistry which confused all established ideas of moral obligation. They tolerated, and some of them justified138, crimes, if the same could be made subservient139 to the apparent interests of the church. Their principle was to do evil that good might come. Above all, they conformed to the inclinations140 of the great, especially to those of absolute princes, on whom they imposed no painful penance141, or austere142 devotion. Their sympathies always were with absolutism, in all its forms and they were the chosen and trusted agents of the despots of mankind, until even the eyes of Europe were open to their vast ambition, which sought to erect143 an independent empire within the limits of despotism itself. But the corruptions144 of the Jesuits, their system of casuistry, their lax morality, their disgraceful intrigues, their unprincipled rapacity145, do not belong to the age we have now been considering. These fruits of a bad system had not then been matured; and the infancy146 of the society was as beautiful as its latter days were disgraceful and fearful. In a future chapter, we shall glance at the decline and fall of this celebrated147 institution—the best adapted to its proposed ends of any system ever devised by the craft and wisdom of man.
The great patrons of the Jesuits—the popes and their empire in the sixteenth century, after the death of Luther—demand some notice. The Catholic church, in this century, was remarkable for the reformation it attempted within its own body, and for the zeal, and ability, and virtue26, which marked the character of many of the popes themselves. Had it not been for this counter reformation, Protestantism would have obtained a great ascendency in Europe. But the Protestants were divided among themselves, while the Catholics were united, and animated148 with singular zeal. They put forth their utmost energies to reconquer what they had lost. They did not succeed in this, but they secured the ascendency, on the whole, of the Catholic cause in Europe. For this ascendency the popes are indebted to the Jesuits.
At The Popes in the Seventeenth Century. the close of the sixteenth century, the popes possessed149 a well-situated, rich, and beautiful province. All writers celebrated its fertility. Scarcely a foot of land remained uncultivated. Corn was exported, and the ports were filled with ships. The people were courageous150, and had great talents for business. The middle classes were peaceful and contented151, but the nobles, who held in their hands the municipal authority, were turbulent, rapacious152, and indifferent to intellectual culture. The popes were generally virtuous153 characters, and Nepotism154 of the Popes. munificent155 patrons of genius. Gregory XIII. kept a list of men in every country who were likely to acquit156 themselves as bishops157, and exhibited the greatest caution in appointing them. Sixtus V., whose father was an humble gardener, encouraged agriculture and manufactures, husbanded the resources of the state, and filled Rome with statues. He raised the obelisk158 in front of St. Peter's, and completed the dome159 of the Cathedral. Clement160 VIII. celebrated the mass himself, and scrupulously161 devoted himself to religious duties. He was careless of the pleasures which formerly162 characterized the popes, and admitted every day twelve poor persons to dine with him. Paul V. had equal talents and greater authority, but was bigoted and cold. Gregory XIV. had all the severity of an ancient monk18. The only religious peculiarity of the popes, at the latter end of the sixteenth century, which we unhesitatingly condemn163, was, their religious intolerance. But they saw that their empire would pass away, unless they used vigorous and desperate measures to retain it. During this period, the great victories of the Jesuits, the establishment of their colleges, and the splendid endowments of their churches took place. Gregory XV. built, at his own cost, the celebrated church of St. Ignatius, at Rome, and instituted the Propaganda, a missionary institution, under the control of the Jesuits.
The popes, whether good or bad, did not relinquish164 their nepotism in this century, in consequence of which great families arose with every pope, and supplanted165 the old aristocracy. The Barberini family, in one pontificate, amassed166 one hundred and five millions of scudi—as great a fortune as that left by Mazarin. But they, enriched under Urban VII., had to flee from Rome in the Seventeenth Century. Rome under Innocent X. Jealousy and contention167 divided and distracted all the noble families, who vied with each other in titles and pomp, ceremony and pride. The ladies of the Savelli family never quitted their palace walls, except in closely veiled carriages. The Visconti decorated their walls with the portraits of the popes of their line. The Gaetana dwelt with pride on the memory of Boniface VIII. The Colonna and Orsini boasted that for centuries no peace had been concluded in Christendom, in which they had not been expressly included. But these old families had become gradually impoverished168, and yielded, in wealth and power, though not in pride and dignity, to the Cesarini, Borghesi, Aldobrandini, Ludovisi, Giustiniani, Chigi, and the Barberini. All these families, from which popes had sprung, had splendid palaces, villas169, pictures, libraries, and statues; and they contributed to make Rome the centre of attraction for the elegant and the literary throughout Europe. It was still the moral and social centre of Christendom. It was a place to which all strangers resorted, and from which all intrigues sprung. It was the scene of pleasure, gayety, and grandeur170. And the splendid fabric171, which was erected172 in the "ages of faith," in spite of all the calamities173 and ravages174 of time, remained still beautiful and attractive. Since the first secession, in the sixteenth century, Rome has lost none of her adherents175, and those, who remained faithful, have become the more enthusiastic in their idolatry.
References.—Ranke's History of the Popes. Father Bouhour's Life of Ignatius Loyola. A Life of Xavier, by the same author. Stephens's Essay on Loyola. Charlevoix's History of Paraguay. Pascal's Provincial176 Letters. Macaulay's Review of Ranke's History of the Popes. Bancroft's chapter, in the History of the United States, on the colonization177 of Canada. "Secreta Monita." Histoire des Jésuites. "Spiritual Exercises." Dr. Williams's Essay. History of Jesuit Missions. The works on the Jesuits are very numerous; but those which are most accessible are of a violent partisan178 character. Eugene Sue, in his "Wandering Jew," has given false, but strong, impressions. Infidel writers have generally been the most bitter, with the exception of English and Scotch179 authors, in the seventeenth century. The great work of Ranke is the most impartial180 with which the author is acquainted. Ranke's histories should never be neglected, of which admirable translations have been made.
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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factions
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| 组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 ) | |
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sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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defender
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| n.保卫者，拥护者，辩护人 | |
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renounced
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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vassals
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| n.奴仆( vassal的名词复数 )；（封建时代）诸侯；从属者；下属 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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massacre
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| n.残杀，大屠杀；v.残杀，集体屠杀 | |
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massacres
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| 大屠杀( massacre的名词复数 )； 惨败 | |
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assassinations
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| n.暗杀( assassination的名词复数 ) | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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disinterestedness
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intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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enlisted
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| adj.应募入伍的v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的过去式和过去分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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contradictory
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| adj.反驳的，反对的，抗辩的；n.正反对，矛盾对立 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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reposed
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| v.将（手臂等）靠在某人（某物）上( repose的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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laurels
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| n.桂冠，荣誉 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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deformed
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| adj.畸形的；变形的；丑的，破相了的 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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fidelity
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| n.忠诚，忠实；精确 | |
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intrepidity
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| n.大胆，刚勇；大胆的行为 | |
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Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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tract
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| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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ridiculed
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| v.嘲笑，嘲弄，奚落( ridicule的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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43
fanatics
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| 狂热者，入迷者( fanatic的名词复数 ) | |
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44
fanatic
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| n.狂热者，入迷者；adj.狂热入迷的 | |
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45
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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46
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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47
license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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48
pontifical
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| adj.自以为是的，武断的 | |
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49
degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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50
inefficient
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| adj.效率低的，无效的 | |
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51
revelling
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| v.作乐( revel的现在分词 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉 | |
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52
itinerant
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| adj.巡回的；流动的 | |
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53
peddling
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| 忙于琐事的，无关紧要的 | |
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54
relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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55
sarcasm
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| n.讥讽，讽刺，嘲弄，反话 （adj.sarcastic） | |
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56
contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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57
corrupt
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| v.贿赂，收买；adj.腐败的，贪污的 | |
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58
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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59
ardor
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| n.热情，狂热 | |
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60
zealous
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| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
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61
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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62
missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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63
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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64
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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65
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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66
endued
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| v.授予，赋予（特性、才能等）( endue的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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67
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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68
prop
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| vt.支撑；n.支柱，支撑物；支持者，靠山 | |
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69
monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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70
hierarchy
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| n.等级制度；统治集团，领导层 | |
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71
amazement
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| n.惊奇，惊讶 | |
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72
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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73
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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74
prospered
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| 成功，兴旺( prosper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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75
attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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76
panegyric
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| n.颂词，颂扬 | |
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77
dreaded
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|
| adj.令人畏惧的；害怕的v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的过去式和过去分词) | |
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78
emblem
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| n.象征，标志；徽章 | |
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79
circumference
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| n.圆周，周长，圆周线 | |
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80
attested
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|
| adj.经检验证明无病的，经检验证明无菌的v.证明( attest的过去式和过去分词 )；证实；声称…属实；使宣誓 | |
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81
perils
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| 极大危险( peril的名词复数 )； 危险的事（或环境） | |
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82
fatigues
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| n.疲劳( fatigue的名词复数 )；杂役；厌倦；（士兵穿的）工作服 | |
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83
labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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84
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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85
envoy
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| n.使节，使者，代表，公使 | |
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86
paternal
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| adj.父亲的，像父亲的，父系的，父方的 | |
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87
blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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88
colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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89
consigning
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的现在分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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90
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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91
gratuitously
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| 平白 | |
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92
crabbed
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|
| adj.脾气坏的；易怒的；（指字迹）难辨认的；（字迹等）难辨认的v.捕蟹( crab的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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93
subdue
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| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
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94
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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95
dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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96
unconditional
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| adj.无条件的，无限制的，绝对的 | |
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97
submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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98
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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99
corps
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|
| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
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100
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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101
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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102
intriguer
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| 密谋者 | |
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103
mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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104
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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105
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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106
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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107
cabals
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| n.（政治）阴谋小集团，（尤指政治上的）阴谋( cabal的名词复数 ) | |
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108
intrigues
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|
| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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109
fully
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|
| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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110
excellences
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|
| n.卓越( excellence的名词复数 )；（只用于所修饰的名词后）杰出的；卓越的；出类拔萃的 | |
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111
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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112
founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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113
specious
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|
| adj.似是而非的；adv.似是而非地 | |
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114
rigid
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|
| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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115
concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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116
glossed
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| v.注解( gloss的过去式和过去分词 )；掩饰（错误）；粉饰；把…搪塞过去 | |
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117
perverted
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| adj.不正当的v.滥用( pervert的过去式和过去分词 )；腐蚀；败坏；使堕落 | |
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118
eloquent
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|
| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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119
bigoted
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| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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120
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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121
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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122
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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123
superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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124
usurped
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| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
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125
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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126
wielded
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的过去式和过去分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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127
subjugate
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| v.征服；抑制 | |
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128
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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129
cupidity
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| n.贪心，贪财 | |
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130
offender
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| n.冒犯者，违反者，犯罪者 | |
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131
wilfulness
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| 任性；倔强 | |
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132
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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133
perjury
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| n.伪证；伪证罪 | |
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134
perjured
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|
| adj.伪证的，犯伪证罪的v.发假誓，作伪证( perjure的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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135
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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136
duel
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| n./v.决斗；(双方的)斗争 | |
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137
stigmatized
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| v.使受耻辱，指责，污辱( stigmatize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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138
justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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139
subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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140
inclinations
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| 倾向( inclination的名词复数 )； 倾斜； 爱好； 斜坡 | |
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141
penance
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| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
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142
austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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143
erect
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| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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144
corruptions
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| n.堕落( corruption的名词复数 )；腐化；腐败；贿赂 | |
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145
rapacity
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| n.贪婪，贪心，劫掠的欲望 | |
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146
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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147
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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148
animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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149
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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150
courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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151
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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152
rapacious
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| adj.贪婪的，强夺的 | |
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153
virtuous
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| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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154
nepotism
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| n.任人唯亲；裙带关系 | |
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155
munificent
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| adj.慷慨的，大方的 | |
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156
acquit
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| vt.宣判无罪；(oneself)使(自己)表现出 | |
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157
bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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158
obelisk
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| n.方尖塔 | |
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159
dome
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| n.圆屋顶，拱顶 | |
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160
clement
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| adj.仁慈的；温和的 | |
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161
scrupulously
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| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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162
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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163
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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164
relinquish
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| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
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165
supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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166
amassed
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| v.积累，积聚( amass的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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167
contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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168
impoverished
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|
| adj.穷困的，无力的，用尽了的v.使（某人）贫穷( impoverish的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某物）贫瘠或恶化 | |
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169
villas
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| 别墅，公馆( villa的名词复数 )； （城郊）住宅 | |
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170
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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171
fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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172
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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173
calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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174
ravages
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| 劫掠后的残迹，破坏的结果，毁坏后的残迹 | |
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175
adherents
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| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
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176
provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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177
colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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178
partisan
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| adj.党派性的；游击队的；n.游击队员；党徒 | |
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179
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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180
impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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