The music of the Catholic Church as it exists to-day is the result of a long process of evolution. Although this process has been continuous, it has three times culminated6 in special forms, all of them coincident [93] with three comprehensive ideas of musical expression which have succeeded each other chronologically7, and which divide the whole history of modern music into clearly marked epochs. These epochs are those (1) of the unison9 chant, (2) of unaccompanied chorus music, and (3) of mixed solo and chorus with instrumental accompaniment.
(1) The period in which the unison chant was the only form of church music extends from the founding of the congregation of Rome to about the year 1100, and coincides with the centuries of missionary10 labor11 among the Northern and Western nations, when the Roman liturgy was triumphantly12 asserting its authority over the various local uses.
(2) The period of the unaccompanied contrapuntal chorus, based on the mediaeval key and melodic13 systems, covers the era of the European sovereignty of the Catholic Church, including also the period of the Counter-Reformation of the sixteenth century. This phase of art, culminating in the works of Palestrina in Rome, Orlandus Lassus in Munich, and the Gabrielis in Venice, suffered no decline, and gave way at last to a style in sharp contrast with it only when it had gained an impregnable historic position.
(3) The style now dominant15 in the choir16 music of the Catholic Church, viz., mixed solo and chorus music with free instrumental accompaniment, based on the modern transposing scales, arose in the seventeenth century as an outcome of the Renaissance18 secularization19 of art. It was taken up by the Catholic, Lutheran, and Anglican Churches, and was moulded into its [94] present types under the influence of new demands upon musical expression which had already brought forth21 the dramatic and concert styles.
The unison chant, although confined in the vast majority of congregations to the portions of the liturgy that are sung by the priest, is still the one officially recognized form of liturgic music. Although in the historic development of musical art representatives of the later phases of music have been admitted into the Church, they exist there only, we might say, by sufferance,—the chant still remains22 the legal basis of the whole scheme of worship music. The chant melodies are no mere23 musical accompaniment; they are the very life breath of the words. The text is so exalted24 in diction and import, partaking of the sanctity of the sacrificial function to which it ministers, that it must be uttered in tones especially consecrated25 to it. So intimate is this reciprocal relation of tone and language that in process of time these two elements have become amalgamated26 into a union so complete that no dissolution is possible even in thought. There is no question that the chant melodies as they exist to-day are only modifications27, in most cases but slight modifications, of those that were originally associated with the several portions of the liturgy. At the moment when any form of words was given a place in the Missal or Breviary, its proper melody was then and there wedded28 to it. This fact makes the Catholic liturgic chant a distinctive29 church song in a special and peculiar30 sense. It is not, like most other church music, the artistic31 creation of individuals, enriching the [95] service with contributions from without, and imparting to them a quality drawn32 from the composer’s personal feeling and artistic methods. It is rather a sort of religious folk-song, proceeding33 from the inner shrine34 of religion. It is abstract, impersonal35; its style is strictly36 ecclesiastical, both in its inherent solemnity and its ancient association, and it bears, like the ritual itself, the sanction of unimpeachable37 authority. The reverence38 paid by the Church to the liturgic chant as a peculiarly sacred form of utterance39 is plainly indicated by the fact that while there is no restraint upon the license40 of choice on the part of the choir, no other form of song has ever been heard, or can ever be permitted to be heard, from the priest in the performance of his ministrations at the altar.
If we enter a Catholic church during High Mass or Vespers we notice that the words of the priest are delivered in musical tones. This song at once strikes us as different in many respects from any other form of music with which we are acquainted. At first it seems monotonous41, strange, almost barbaric, but when we have become accustomed to it the effect is very solemn and impressive. Many who are not instructed in the matter imagine that the priest extemporizes42 these cadences44, but nothing could be further from the truth. Certain portions of this chant are very plain, long series of words being recited on a single note, introduced and ended with very simple melodic inflections; other portions are florid, of wider compass than the simple chant, often with many notes to a syllable45. Sometimes the priest sings alone, without response [96] or accompaniment; sometimes his utterances46 are answered by a choir of boys in the chancel or a mixed choir in the gallery; in certain portions of the service the organ supports the chant with harmonies which seem to be based on a different principle of key and scale from that which ordinarily obtains in modern chord progression. In its freedom of rhythm it bears some resemblance to dramatic recitative, yet it is far less dramatic or characteristic in color and expression, and at the same time both more severe and more flexible. To one who understands the whole conception and spirit of the Catholic worship there is a singular appropriateness in the employment of this manner of utterance, and when properly rendered it blends most efficiently48 with the architectural splendors49 of altar and sanctuary51, with incense52, lights, vestments, ceremonial action, and all the embellishments that lend distinction and solemnity to the Catholic ritual. This is the celebrated53 liturgic chant, also called Gregorian chant, Plain Song, or Choral, and is the special and peculiar form of song in which the Catholic Church has clothed its liturgy for certainly fifteen hundred years.
This peculiar and solemn form of song is the musical speech in which the entire ritual of the Catholic Church was originally rendered, and to which a large portion of the ritual is confined at the present day. It is always sung in unison, with or without instrumental accompaniment. It is unmetrical though not unrhythmical; it follows the phrasing, the emphasis, and the natural inflections of the voice in reciting the text, at the same time that it idealizes them. It is a sort of [97] heightened form of speech, a musical declamation56, having for its object the intensifying57 of the emotional powers of ordinary spoken language. It stands to true song or tune58 in much the same relation as prose to verse, less impassioned, more reflective, yet capable of moving the heart like eloquence59.
The chant appears to be the natural and fundamental form of music employed in all liturgical60 systems the world over, ancient and modern. The sacrificial song of the Egyptians, the Hebrews, and the Greeks was a chant, and this is the form of music adopted by the Eastern Church, the Anglican, and every system in which worship is offered in common and prescribed forms. The chant form is chosen because it does not make an independent artistic impression, but can be held in strict subordination to the sacred words; its sole function is to carry the text over with greater force upon the attention and the emotions. It is in this relationship of text and tone that the chant differs from true melody. The latter obeys musical laws of structure and rhythm; the music is paramount61 and the text accessory, and in order that the musical flow may not be hampered62, the words are often extended or repeated, and may be compared to a flexible framework on which the tonal decoration is displayed. In the chant, on the other hand, this relation of text and tone is reversed; there is no repetition of words, the laws of structure and rhythm are rhetorical laws, and the music never asserts itself to the concealment65 or subjugation66 of the meaning of the text. The “jubilations” or “melismas,” which are frequent in the choral portions of the Plain [98] Song system, particularly in the richer melodies of thee Mass, would seem at first thought to contradict this principle; in these florid melodic phrases the singer would appear to abandon himself to a sort of inspired rapture67, giving vent17 to the emotions aroused in him by the sacred words. Here musical utterance seems for the moment to be set free from dependence68 upon word and symbol and to assert its own special prerogatives69 of expression, adopting the conception that underlies70 modern figurate music. These occasional ebullitions of feeling permitted in the chant are, however, only momentary71; they relieve what would otherwise be an unvaried austerity not contemplated73 in the spirit of Catholic art; they do not violate the general principle of universality and objectiveness as opposed to individual subjective74 expression,—subordination to word and rite75 rather than purely76 musical self-assertion,—which is the theoretic basis of the liturgic chant system.
Chant is speech-song, probably the earliest form of vocal77 music; it proceeds from the modulations of impassioned speech; it results from the need of regulating and perpetuating79 these modulations when certain exigencies80 require a common and impressive form of utterance, as in religious rites81, public rejoicing or mourning, etc. The necessity of filling large spaces almost inevitably82 involves the use of balanced cadences. Poetic recitation among ancient and primitive83 peoples is never recited in the ordinary level pitch of voice in speech, but always in musical inflections, controlled by some principle of order. Under the authority of a permanent corporate84 institution these inflections are reduced to a [99] system, and are imposed upon all whose office it is to administer the public ceremonies of worship. This is the origin of the liturgic chant of ancient peoples, and also, by historic continuation, of the Gregorian melody. The Catholic chant is a projection85 into modern art of the altar song of Greece, Judaea, and Egypt, and through these nations reaches back to that epoch8 of unknown remoteness when mankind first began to conceive of invisible powers to be invoked86 or appeased87. A large measure of the impressiveness of the liturgic chant, therefore, is due to its historic religious associations. It forms a connecting link between ancient religion and the Christian88, and perpetuates89 to our own day an ideal of sacred music which is as old as religious music itself. It is a striking fact that only within the last six hundred or seven hundred years, and only within the bounds of Christendom, has an artificial form of worship music arisen in which musical forms have become emancipated90 from subjection to the rhetorical laws of speech, and been built up under the shaping force of inherent musical laws, gaining a more or less free play for the creative impulses of an independent art. The conception which is realized in the Gregorian chant, and which exclusively prevailed until the rise of the modern polyphonic system, is that of music in subjection to rite and liturgy, its own charms merged91 and, so far as conscious intention goes, lost in the paramount significance of text and action. It is for this reason, together with the historic relation of chant and liturgy, that the rulers of the Catholic Church have always labored92 so strenuously93 for uniformity in the liturgic [100] chant as well as for its perpetuity. There are even churchmen at the present time who urge the abandonment of all the modern forms of harmonized music and the restoration of the unison chant to every detail of the service. A notion so ascetic94 and monastic can never prevail, but one who has fully95 entered into the spirit of the Plain Song melodies can at least sympathize with the reverence which such a reactionary96 attitude implies. There is a solemn unearthly sweetness in these tones which appeals irresistibly97 to those who have become habituated to them. They have maintained for centuries the inevitable98 comparison with every other form of melody, religious and secular20, and there is reason to believe that they will continue to sustain all possible rivalry99, until they at last outlive every other form of music now existing.
No one can obtain any proper conception of this magnificent Plain Song system from the examples which one ordinarily hears in Catholic churches, for only a minute part of it is commonly employed at the present day. Only in certain convents and a few churches where monastic ideas prevail, and where priests and choristers are enthusiastic students of the ancient liturgic song, can we hear musical performances which afford us a revelation of the true affluence100 of this mediaeval treasure. What we customarily hear is only the simpler intonings of the priest at his ministrations, and the eight “psalm tones” sung alternately by priest and choir. These “psalm tones” or “Gregorian tones” are plain melodic formulas, with variable endings, and are appointed to be sung to the Latin psalms102 and canticles. [101] When properly delivered, and supported by an organist who knows the secret of accompanying them, they are exceedingly beautiful. They are but a hint, however, of the rich store of melodies, some of them very elaborate and highly organized, which the chantbooks contain, and which are known only to special students. To this great compendium103 belong the chants anciently assigned to those portions of the liturgy which are now usually sung in modern settings,—the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Benedictus, Agnus Dei, and the variable portions of the Mass, such as the Introits, Graduals, Prefaces, Offertories, Sequences, etc., besides the hymns104 sung at Vespers and the other canonical106 hours. Few have ever explored the bulky volumes which contain this unique bequest108 of the Middle Age; but one who has even made a beginning of such study, or who has heard the florid chants worthily109 performed in the traditional style, can easily understand the enthusiasm which these strains arouse in the minds of those who love to penetrate110 to the innermost shrines111 of Catholic devotional expression.
Example of Gregorian Tones. First Tone with its Endings.
Example of Gregorian Tones. First Tone with its Endings.
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Example of a Florid Chant.
Example of a Florid Chant.
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The theory and practice of the liturgic chant is a science of large dimensions and much difficulty. In the course of centuries a vast store of chant melodies has been accumulated, and in the nature of the case many variants112 of the older melodies—those composed before the development of a precise system of notation113—have arisen, so that the verification of texts, comparison of authorities, and the application of methods of rendering114 to the needs of the complex ceremonial make this subject a very important branch of liturgical science.
The Plain Song may be divided into the simple and the ornate chants. In the first class the melodies are to a large extent syllabic (one note to a syllable), rarely with more than two notes to a syllable. The simplest of all are the tones employed in the delivery of certain prayers, the Epistle, Prophecy, and Gospel, technically115 known as “accents,” which vary but little from monotone. The most important of the more melodious116 simple chants are the “Gregorian tones” already mentioned. The inflections sung to the versicles and responses are also included among the simple chants.
The ornate chants differ greatly in length, compass, and degree of elaboration. Some of these melodies are exceedingly florid and many are of great beauty. They constitute the original settings for all the portions of the Mass not enumerated117 among the simple chants, viz., the Kyrie, Gloria, Introit, Prefaces, Communion, etc., besides the Sequences and hymns. Certain of these chants are so elaborate that they may almost be said to belong to a separate class. Examination of many of these extended melodies will often disclose [104] a decided118 approach to regularity119 of form through the recurrence120 of certain definite melodic figures. “In the Middle Age,” says P. Wagner, “nothing was known of an accompaniment; there was not the slightest need of one. The substance of the musical content, which we to-day commit to interpretation121 through harmony, the old musicians laid upon melody. The latter accomplished122 in itself the complete utterance of the artistically123 aroused fantasy. In this particular the melismas, which carry the extensions of the tones of the melody, are a necessary means of presentation in mediaeval art; they proceed logically out of the principle of the unison melody.” “Text repetition is virtually unknown in the unison music of the Middle Age. While modern singers repeat an especially emphatic124 thought or word, the old melodists repeat a melody or phrase which expresses the ground mood of the text in a striking manner. And they not only repeat it, but they make it unfold, and draw out of it new tones of melody. This method is certainly not less artistic than the later text repetition; it comes nearer, also, to the natural expression of the devotionally inspired heart.”[54]
The ritual chant has its special laws of execution which involve long study on the part of one who wishes to master it. Large attention is given in the best seminaries to the purest manner of delivering the chant, and countless125 treatises126 have been written upon the subject. The first desideratum is an accurate pronunciation of the Latin, and a facile and distinct articulation127. The notes have no fixed128 and measurable value, [105] and are not intended to give the duration of the tones, but only to guide the modulation78 of the voice. The length of each tone is determined129 only by the proper length of the syllable. In this principle lies the very essence of Gregorian chant, and it is the point at which it stands in exact contradiction to the theory of modern measured music. The divisions of the chant are given solely130 by the text. The rhythm, therefore, is that of speech, of the prose text to which the chant tones are set. The rhythm is a natural rhythm, a succession of syllables131 combined into expressive132 groups by means of accent, varied72 pitch, and prolongations of tone. The fundamental rule for chanting is: “Sing the words with notes as you would speak them without notes.” This does not imply that the utterance is stiff and mechanical as in ordinary conversation; there is a heightening of the natural inflection and a grouping of notes, as in impassioned speech or the most refined declamation. Like the notes and divisions, the pauses also are unequal and immeasurable, and are determined only by the sense of the words and the necessity of taking breath.
In the long florid passages often occurring on a single vowel133 analogous134 rules are involved. The text and the laws of natural recitation must predominate over melody. The jubilations are not to be conceived simply as musical embellishments, but, on the contrary, their beauty depends upon the melodic accents to which they are joined in a subordinate position. These florid passages are never introduced thoughtlessly or without meaning, but they are strictly for emphasizing the [106] thought with which they are connected; “they make the soul in singing fathom135 the deeper sense of the words, and to taste of the mysteries hidden within them.”[55] The particular figures must be kept apart and distinguished136 from each other, and brought into union with each other, like the words, clauses, and sentences of an oration63. Even these florid passages are dependent upon the influence of the words and their character of prayer.
The principles above cited concern the rhythm of the chant. Other elements of expression must also be taken into account, such as prolonging and shortening tones, crescendos and diminuendos, subtle changes of quality of voice or tone color to suit different sentiments. The manner of singing is also affected137 by the conditions of time and place, such as the degree of the solemnity of the occasion, and the dimensions and acoustic138 properties of the edifice139 in which the ceremony is held.
In the singing of the mediaeval hymn105 melodies, many beautiful examples of which abound140 in the Catholic office books, the above rules of rhythm and expression are modified as befits the more regular metrical character which the melodies derive141 from the verse. They are not so rigid142, however, as would be indicated by the bar lines of modern notation, and follow the same laws of rhythm that would obtain in spoken recitation.
The liturgic chant of the Catholic Church has already been alluded143 to under its more popular title of “Gregorian.” Throughout the Middle Age and down to [107] our own day nothing in history has been more generally received as beyond question than that the Catholic chant is entitled to this appellation144 from the work performed in its behalf by Pope Gregory I., called the Great. This eminent145 man, who reigned146 from 590 to 604, was the ablest of the succession of early pontiffs who formulated147 the line of policy which converted the barbarians148 of the North and West, brought about the spiritual and political autonomy of the Roman See, and confirmed its supremacy149 over all the churches of the West.
In addition to these genuine services historians have generally concurred150 in ascribing to him a final shaping influence upon the liturgic chant, with which, however, he probably had very little to do. His supposed work in this department has been divided into the following four details:
(1) He freed the church song from the fetters151 of Greek prosody152.
(2) He collected the chants previously153 existing, added others, provided them with a system of notation, and wrote them down in a book which was afterwards called the Antiphonary of St. Gregory, which he fastened to the altar of St. Peter’s Church, in order that it might serve as an authoritative155 standard in all cases of doubt in regard to the true form of chant.
(3) He established a singing school in which he gave instruction.
(4) He added four new scales to the four previously existing, thus completing the tonal system of the Church.
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The prime authority for these statements is the biography of Gregory I., written by John the Deacon about 872. Detached allusions156 to this pope as the founder158 of the liturgic chant appear before John’s day, the earliest being in a manuscript addressed by Pope Hadrian I. to Charlemagne in the latter part of the eighth century, nearly two hundred years after Gregory’s death. The evidences which tend to show that Gregory I. could not have had anything to do with this important work of sifting159, arranging, and noting the liturgic melodies become strong as soon as they are impartially160 examined. In Gregory’s very voluminous correspondence, which covers every known phase of his restless activity, there is no allusion157 to any such work in respect to the music of the Church, as there almost certainly would have been if he had undertaken to bring about uniformity in the musical practice of all the churches under his administration. The assertions of John the Deacon are not confirmed by any anterior161 document. No epitaph of Gregory, no contemporary records, no ancient panegyrics162 of the pope, touch upon the question. Isidor of Seville, a contemporary of Gregory, and the Venerable Bede in the next century, were especially interested in the liturgic chant and wrote upon it, yet they make no mention of Gregory in connection with it. The documents upon which John bases his assertion, the so-called Gregorian Antiphonary, do not agree with the ecclesiastical calendar of the actual time of Gregory I.
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In reply to these objections and others that might be given there is no answer but legend, which John the Deacon incorporated in his work, and which was generally accepted toward the close of the eleventh century. That this legend should have arisen is not strange. It is no uncommon163 thing in an uncritical age for the achievement of many minds in a whole epoch to be attributed to the most commanding personality in that epoch, and such a personality in the sixth and seventh centuries was Gregory the Great.
What, then, is the origin of the so-called Gregorian chant? There is hardly a more interesting question in the whole history of music, for this chant is the basis of the whole magnificent structure of mediaeval church song, and in a certain sense of all modern music, and it can be traced back unbroken to the earliest years of the Christian Church, the most persistent164 and fruitful form of art that the modern world has known. The most exhaustive study that has been devoted165 to this obscure subject has been undertaken by Gevaert, director of the Brussels Conservatory166 of Music, who has brought forward strong representation to show that the musical system of the early Church of Rome was largely derived167 from the secular forms of music practised in the private and social life of the Romans in the time of the empire, and which were brought to Rome from Greece after the conquest of that country B.C. 146. “No one to-day doubts,” says Gevaert, “that the modes and melodies of the Catholic liturgy are a precious remains of antique art.” “The Christian chant took its modal scales to the number of four, and its melodic themes, from the musical practice of the Roman empire, and particularly from the song [110] given to the accompaniment of the kithara, the special style of music cultivated in private life. The most ancient monuments of the liturgic chant go back to the boundary of the fourth and fifth centuries, when the forms of worship began to be arrested in their present shape. Like the Latin language, the Greco-Roman music entered in like manner into the Catholic Church. Vocabulary and syntax are the same with the pagan Symmachus and his contemporary St. Ambrose; modes and rules of musical composition are identical in the hymns which Mesomedes addresses to the divinities of paganism and in the cantilenas of the Christian singers.” “The compilation168 and composition of the liturgic songs, which was traditionally ascribed to St. Gregory I., is in truth a work of the Hellenic popes at the end of the seventh and the beginning of the eighth centuries. The Antiphonarium Missarum received its definitive169 form between 682 and 715; the Antiphonarium Officii was already fixed under Pope Agathon (678-681).” In the fourth century, according to Gevaert, antiphons were already known in the East. St. Ambrose is said to have transplanted them into the West. Pope Celestine I. (422-472) has been called the founder of the antiphonal song in the Roman Church. Leo the Great (440-461) gave the song permanence by the establishment of a singing school in the neighborhood of St. Peter’s. Thus from the fifth century to the latter part of the seventh grew the treasure of melody, together with the unfolding of the liturgy. The four authentic170 modes were adaptations of four modes employed by the Greeks. The oldest chants [111] are the simplest, and of those now in existence the antiphons of the Divine Office can be traced farthest back to the transition point from the Greco-Roman practice to that of the Christian Church. The florid chants were of later introduction, and were probably the contribution of the Greek and Syrian Churches.[56]
The Christian chants were, however, no mere reproductions of profane171 melodies. The groundwork of the chant is allied172 to the Greek melody; the Christian song is of a much richer melodic movement, bearing in all its forms the evidence of the exuberant173 spiritual life of which it is the chosen expression. The pagan melody was sung to an instrument; the Christian was unaccompanied, and was therefore free to develop a special rhythmical55 and melodic character unconditioned by any laws except those involved in pure vocal expression. The fact also that the Christian melodies were set to unmetrical texts, while the Greek melody was wholly confined to verse, marked the emancipation174 of the liturgic song from the bondage175 of strict prosody, and gave a wider field to melodic and rhythmic54 development.
It would be too much to say that Gevaert has completely made out his case. The impossibility of verifying the exact primitive form of the oldest chants, and the almost complete disappearance176 of the Greco-Roman [112] melodies which are supposed to be the antecedent or the suggestion of the early Christian tone formulas, make a positive demonstration177 in such a case out of the question. Gevaert seems to rely mainly upon the identity of modes or keys which exists between the most ancient church melodies and those most in use in the kithara song. Other explanations, more or less plausible178, have been advanced, and it is not impossible that the simpler melodies may have arisen in an idealization of the natural speech accent, with a view to procuring179 measured and agreeable cadences. Both methods—actual adaptations of older tunes180 and the spontaneous enunciation181 of more obvious melodic formulas—may have been allied in the production of the earlier liturgic chants. The laws that have been found valid182 in the development of all art would make the derivation of the ecclesiastical melodies from elements existing in the environment of the early Church a logical and reasonable supposition, even in the absence of documentary evidence.
There is no proof of the existence of a definite system of notation before the seventh century. The chanters, priests, deacons, and monks183, in applying melodies to the text of the office, composed by aid of their memories, and their melodies were transmitted by memory, although probably with the help of arbitrary mnemonic signs. The possibility of this will readily be granted when we consider that special orders of monks made it their sole business to preserve, sing, and teach these melodies. In the confusion and misery185 following the downfall of the kingdom of the Goths in the middle [113] of the sixth century the Church became a sanctuary of refuge from the evils of the time. With the revival186 of religious zeal187 and the accession of strength the Church flourished, basilicas and convents were multiplied, solemnities increased in number and splendor50, and with other liturgic elements the chant expanded. A number of popes in the seventh century were enthusiastic lovers of Church music, and gave it the full benefit of their authority. Among these were Gregory II. and Gregory III., one of whom may have inadvertently given his name to the chant.
The system of tonality upon which the music of the Middle Age was based was the modal or diatonic. The modern system of transposing scales, each major or minor188 scale containing the same succession of steps and half steps as each of its fellows, dates no further back than the first half of the seventeenth century. The mediaeval system comprises theoretically fourteen, in actual use twelve, distinct modes or keys, known as the ecclesiastical modes or Gregorian modes. These modes are divided into two classes—the “authentic” and “plagal.” The compass of each of the authentic modes lies between the keynote, called the “final,” and the octave above, and includes the notes represented by the white keys of the pianoforte, excluding sharps and flats. The first authentic mode begins on D, the second on E, and so on. Every authentic mode is connected with a mode known as its plagal, which consists of the last four notes of the authentic mode transposed an octave below, and followed by the first five notes of the authentic, the “final” being the [114] same in the two modes. The modes are sometimes transposed a fifth lower or a fourth higher by means of flatting the B. During the epoch of the foundation of the liturgic chant only the first eight modes (four authentic and four plagal) were in use. The first four authentic modes were popularly attributed to St. Ambrose, bishop189 of Milan in the fourth century, and the first four plagal to St. Gregory, but there is no historic basis for this tradition. The last two modes are a later addition to the system. The Greek names are those by which the modes are popularly known, and indicate a hypothetical connection with the ancient Greek scale system.
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Authentic Modes Plagal Modes
I. Dorian. II. Hypo-dorian.
I. Dorian. II. Hypo-dorian.
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III. Phrygian. IV. Hypo-phrygian.
III. Phrygian. IV. Hypo-phrygian.
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V. Lydian. VI. Hypo-lydian.
V. Lydian. VI. Hypo-lydian.
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VII. Mixo-lydian. VIII. Hypo-mixo-lydian.
VII. Mixo-lydian. VIII. Hypo-mixo-lydian.
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Authentic Modes Plagal Modes
IX. ?olian. X. Hypo-?olian.
IX. ?olian. X. Hypo-?olian.
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XI. Ionian. X. Hypo-ionian.
XI. Ionian. X. Hypo-ionian.
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To suppose that the chant in this period was sung exactly as it appears in the office books of the present day would be to ignore a very characteristic and universal usage in the Middle Age. No privilege was more freely accorded to the mediaeval chanter than that of adding to the melody whatever embellishment he might choose freely to invent on the impulse of the moment. The right claimed by Italian opera singers down to a very recent date to decorate the phrases with trills, cadenzas, etc., even to the extent of altering the written notes themselves, is only the perpetuation190 of a practice generally prevalent in the mediaeval Church, and which may have come down, for anything we know to the contrary, from remote antiquity191. In fact, the requirement of singing the notes exactly as they are written is a modern idea; no such rule was recognized as invariably binding192 until well into the nineteenth century. It was no uncommon thing in H?ndel’s time and after to introduce free embellishments even into “I know that my Redeemer liveth” in the “Messiah.” In the Middle Age the singers in church and convent took great merit to themselves for the inventive ability and [116] vocal adroitness193 by which they were able to sprinkle the plain notes of the chant with improvised194 embellishments. “Moreover, there existed in the liturgic text a certain number of words upon which the singers had the liberty of dilating195 according to their fancy. According to an ancient Christian tradition, certain chants were followed by a number of notes sung upon meaningless vowels196; these notes, called neumes or jubili, rendered, in accordance with a poetic thought, the faith and adoration197 of the worshipers who appeared to be unable to find words that could express their sentiments. These vocalizations or embroideries198 were sometimes longer than the chants themselves, and many authors complained of the importance given to these vocal fantasies.”[57] Among the mnemonic signs which, before the invention of the staff and notation system, indicated the changes of pitch to be observed by the singer, there were many that unmistakably point to the traditional flourishes which had become an integral element in the Plain Song system. Many of these survived and were carried over into secular music after the method of chanting became more simple and severe. Similar license was also practised in the later period of part singing, and not only in the rude early counterpoint of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, but even in the highly developed and specialized199 chorus music of the sixteenth century, the embellishments which were reduced to a system and handed down by tradition, gave to this art a style and effect the nature of which has now fallen from the knowledge of men.
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Such was the nature of the song which resounded200 about the altars of Roman basilicas and through convent cloisters201 in the seventh and eighth centuries, and which has remained the sanctioned official speech of the Catholic Church in her ritual functions to the present day. Nowhere did it suffer any material change or addition until it became the basis of a new harmonic art in Northern Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The chant according to the Roman use began to extend itself over Europe in connection with the missionary efforts which emanated203 from Rome from the time of Gregory the Great. Augustine, the emissary of Gregory, who went to England in 597 to convert the Saxons, carried with him the Roman chant. “The band of monks,” says Green, “entered Canterbury bearing before them a silver cross with a picture of Christ, and singing in concert the strains of the litany of their church.”[58] And although the broad-minded Gregory instructed Augustine not to insist upon supplanting204 with the Roman use the liturgy already employed in the older British churches if such an attempt would create hostility205, yet the Roman chant was adopted both at Canterbury and York.
The Roman chant was accepted eventually throughout the dominions206 of the Church as an essential element of the Roman liturgy. Both shared the same struggles and the same triumphs. Familiarity with the church song became an indispensable part of the equipment of every clergyman, monastic and secular. No missionary might go forth from Rome who was not adept207 in it. Monks made dangerous journeys to Rome from the remotest [118] districts in order to learn it. Every monastery208 founded in the savage209 forests of Germany, Gaul, or Britain became at once a singing school, and day and night the holy strains went up in unison with the melodies of the far distant sacred city. The Anglo-Saxon monk184 Winfrid, afterward154 known as Boniface, the famous missionary to the Germans, planted the Roman liturgy in Thuringia and Hesse, and devoted untiring efforts to teaching the Gregorian song to his barbarous proselytes. In Spain, Ildefonso, about 600, is enrolled210 among the zealous211 promoters of sacred song according to the use of Rome. Most eminent and most successful of all who labored for the exclusive authority of the Roman chant as against the Milanese, Gallican, and other rival forms was Charlemagne, king of the Franks from 768 to 814, whose persistent efforts to implant212 the Gregorian song in every church and school in his wide dominions was an important detail of his labor in the interest of liturgic uniformity according to the Roman model.
Among the convent schools which performed such priceless service for civilization in the gloomy period of the early Middle Age, the monastery of St. Gall47 in Switzerland holds an especially distinguished place. This convent was established in the seventh century by the Irish monk from whom it took its name, rapidly increased in repute as a centre of piety213 and learning, and during the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries numbered some of the foremost scholars of the time among its brotherhood214. About 790 two monks, versed64 in all the lore107 of the liturgic chant, were sent from Rome into the empire of Charlemagne at the monarch’s request. [119] One of them, Romanus, was received and entertained by the monks of St. Gall, and was persuaded to remain with them as teacher of church song according to the Antiphonary which he had brought with him from Rome. St. Gall soon became famous as a place where the purest traditions of the Roman chant were taught and practised. Schubiger, in his extremely interesting work, Die S?ngerschule St. Gallens vom VIII.-XII. Jahrhundert, has given an extended account of the methods of devotional song in use at St. Gall, which may serve as an illustration of the general practice among the pious215 monks of the Middle Age:
“In the reign14 of Charlemagne (803) the Council of Aachen enjoined216 upon all monasteries217 the use of the Roman song, and a later capitulary required that the monks should perform this song completely and in proper order at the divine office, in the daytime as well as at night. According to other rescripts during the reign of Louis the Pious (about 820) the monks of St. Gall were required daily to celebrate Mass, and also to perform the service of all the canonical hours. The solemn melodies of the ancient psalmody resounded daily in manifold and precisely218 ordered responses; at the midnight hour the sound of the Invitatorium, Venite exultamus Domino, opened the service of the nocturnal vigils; the prolonged, almost mournful tones of the responses alternated with the intoned recitation of the lessons; in the spaces of the temple on Sundays and festal days, at the close of the nightly worship, there re?choed the exalted strains of the Ambrosian hymn of praise (Te Deum laudamus); at the first dawn of day began the morning adoration, with psalms and antiphons, hymns and [120] prayers; to these succeeded in due order the remaining offices of the diurnal219 hours. The people were daily invited by the Introit to participate in the holy mysteries; they heard in solemn stillness the tones of the Kyrie imploring220 mercy; on festal days they were inspired by the song once sung by the host of angels; after the Gradual they heard the melodies of the Sequence which glorified221 the object of the festival in jubilant choral strains, and afterward the simple recitative tones of the Creed222; at the Sanctus they were summoned to join in the praise of the Thrice Holy, and to implore223 the mercy of the Lamb who taketh away the sins of the world. These were the songs which, about the middle of the ninth century, arose on festal or ferial days in the cloister202 church of St. Gall. How much store the fathers of this convent set upon beauty and edification in song appears from the old regulations in which distinct pronunciation of words and uniformity of rendering are enjoined, and hastening or dragging the time sharply rebuked224.”
Schubiger goes on to say that three styles of performing the chant were employed; viz., a very solemn one for the highest festivals, one less solemn for Sundays and saints’ days, and an ordinary one for ferial days. An appropriate character was given to the different chants,—e. g., a profound and mournful expression in the office for the dead; an expression of tenderness and sweetness to the hymns, the Kyrie, Sanctus, and Agnus Dei; and a dignified225 character (cantus gravis) to the antiphons, responses, and alleluia. Anything that could disturb the strict and euphonious226 rendering of the song was strictly forbidden. Harsh, unmusical voices were not permitted to take part. Distinctness, precise conformity227 of all the singers in respect to time, and purity of intonation228 were inflexibly229 demanded.
[121]
Special services, with processions and appropriate hymns, were instituted on the occasion of the visit to the monastery of the emperor or other high dignitary. All public observances, the founding of a building, the reception of holy relics230, the consecration231 of a bell or altar,—even many of the prescribed routine duties of conventual life, such as drawing water, lighting232 lamps, or kindling233 fires,—each had its special form of song. It was not enthusiasm, but sober truth, that led Ekkehard V. to say that the rulers of this convent, “through their songs and melodies, as also through their teachings, filled the Church of God, not only in Germany, but in all lands from one sea to the other, with splendor and joy.”
At the convent of St. Gall originated the class of liturgical hymns called Sequences, which includes some of the finest examples of mediaeval hymnody. At a very early period it became the custom to sing the Alleluia of the Gradual to a florid chant, the final vowel being extended into an exceedingly elaborate flourish of notes. Notker Balbulus, a notable member of the St. Gall brotherhood in the ninth century, conceived the notion, under the suggestion of a visiting monk, of making a practical use of the long-winded final cadence43 of the Alleluia. He extended and modified these melodious passages and set words to them, thus constructing a brief form of prose hymn. His next step was to invent both notes and text, giving his chants a certain crude [122] form by the occasional repetition of a melodic strain. He preserved a loose connection with the Alleluia by retaining the mode and the first few tones. These experiments found great favor in the eyes of the brethren of St. Gall; others followed Notker’s example, and the Sequence melodies were given honored places in the ritual on festal days and various solemn occasions. The custom spread; Pope Nicholas I. in 860 permitted the adoption234 of the new style of hymn into the liturgy. The early Sequences were in rhythmic prose, but in the hands of the ecclesiastical poets of the few centuries following they were written in rhymed verse. The Sequence was therefore distinguished from other Latin hymns only by its adoption into the office of the Mass as a regular member of the liturgy on certain festal days. The number increased to such large proportions that a sifting process was deemed necessary, and upon the occasion of the reform of the Missal through Pius V. after the Council of Trent only five were retained, viz., Victimae paschali, sung on Easter Sunday; Veni Sancte Spiritus, appointed for Whit-Sunday; Lauda Sion, for Corpus Christi; Stabat Mater dolorosa, for Friday of Passion Week; and Dies Irae, which forms a portion of the Mass for the Dead.
Many beautiful and touching235 stories have come down to us, illustrating236 the passionate237 love of the monks for their songs, and the devout238, even superstitious239, reverence with which they regarded them. Among these are the tales of the Armorican monk Hervé, in the sixth century, who, blind from his birth, became the inspirer and teacher of his brethren by [123] means of his improvised songs, and the patron of mendicant240 singers, who still chant his legend in Breton verse. His mother, so one story goes, went one day to visit him in the cloister, and, as she was approaching, said: “I see a procession of monks advancing, and I hear the voice of my son. God be with you, my son! When, with the help of God, I get to heaven, you shall be warned of it, you shall hear the angels sing.” The same evening she died, and her son, while at prayer in his cell, heard the singing of the angels as they welcomed her soul in heaven.[59] According to another legend, told by Gregory of Tours, a mother had taken her only son to a monastery near Lake Geneva, where he became a monk, and especially skilful241 in chanting the liturgic service. “He fell sick and died; his mother in despair came to bury him, and returned every night to weep and lament242 over his tomb. One night she saw St. Maurice in a dream attempting to console her, but she answered him, ‘No, no; as long as I live I shall always weep for my son, my only child!’ ‘But,’ answered the saint, ‘he must not be wept for as if he were dead; he is with us, he rejoices in eternal life, and tomorrow, at Matins, in the monastery, thou shalt hear his voice among the choir of the monks; and not to-morrow only, but every day as long as thou livest.’ The mother immediately arose, and waited with impatience243 the first sound of the bell for Matins, to hasten to the church of the monks. The precentor having intoned the response, when the monks in full choir took up the antiphon, the mother immediately recognized the voice of her child. [124] She gave thanks to God; and every day for the rest of her life, the moment she approached the choir she heard the voice of her well-beloved son mingle244 in the sweet and holy melody of the liturgic chant.”[60]
As centuries went on, and these ancient melodies, gathering245 such stores of holy memory, were handed down in their integrity from generation to generation of praying monks, it is no wonder that the feeling grew that they too were inspired by the Holy Spirit. The legend long prevailed in the Middle Age that Gregory the Great one night had a vision in which the Church appeared to him in the form of an angel, magnificently attired246, upon whose mantle247 was written the whole art of music, with all the forms of its melodies and notes. The pope prayed God to give him the power of recollecting248 all that he saw; and after he awoke a dove appeared, who dictated249 to him the chants which are ascribed to him.[61] Ambros quotes a mediaeval Latin chronicler, Aurelian Reomensis, who relates that a blind man named Victor, sitting one day before an altar in the Pantheon at Rome, by direct divine inspiration composed the response Gaude Maria, and by a second miracle immediately received his sight. Another story from the same source tells how a monk of the convent of St. Victor, while upon a neighboring mountain, heard angels singing the response Cives Apostolorum, and after his return to Rome he taught the song to his brethren as he had heard it.[62]
[125]
In order to explain the feeling toward the liturgic chant which is indicated by these legends and the rapturous eulogies250 of mediaeval and modern writers, we have only to remember that the melody was never separated in thought from the words, that these words were prayer and praise, made especially acceptable to God because wafted251 to him by means of his own gift of music. To the mediaeval monks prayer was the highest exercise in which man can engage, the most efficacious of all actions, the chief human agency in the salvation252 of the world. Prayer was the divinely appointed business to which they were set apart. Hence arose the multiplicity of religious services in the convents, the observance of the seven daily hours of prayer, in some monasteries in France, as earlier in Syria and Egypt, extending to the so-called laus perennis, in which companies of brethren, relieving each other at stated watches, maintained, like the sacred fire of Vesta, an unbroken office of song by night and day.
Such was the liturgic chant in the ages of faith, before the invention of counterpoint and the first steps in modern musical science suggested new conceptions and methods in worship music. It constitutes to-day a unique and precious heritage from an era which, in its very ignorance, superstition253, barbarism of manners, and ruthlessness of political ambition, furnishes strongest evidence of the divine origin of a faith which could triumph over such antagonisms254. To the devout Catholic the chant has a sanctity which transcends255 even its aesthetic256 and historic value, but non-Catholic as well as Catholic may reverence it as a direct creation and a token of a mode of thought which, as at no epoch since, conceived prayer and praise as a Christian’s most urgent duty, and as an infallible means of gaining the favor of God.
[126]
The Catholic liturgic chant, like all other monumental forms of art, has often suffered through the vicissitudes257 of taste which have beguiled258 even those whose official responsibilities would seem to constitute them the special custodians259 of this sacred treasure. Even to-day there are many clergymen and church musicians who have but a faint conception of the affluence of lovely melody and profound religious expression contained in this vast body of mediaeval music. Where purely aesthetic considerations have for a time prevailed, as they often will even in a Church in which tradition and symbolism exert so strong an influence as they do in the Catholic, this archaic260 form of melody has been neglected. Like all the older types (the sixteenth century a capella chorus and the German rhythmic choral, for example) its austere261 speech has not been able to prevail against the fascinations262 of the modern brilliant and emotional style of church music which has emanated from instrumental art and the Italian aria101. Under this latter influence, and the survival of the seventeenth-century contempt for everything mediaeval and “Gothic,” the chant was long looked upon with disdain263 as the offspring of a barbarous age, and only maintained at all out of unwilling264 deference265 to ecclesiastical authority. In the last few decades, however, probably as a detail of the reawakening in all departments of a study of the great works of older art, there has appeared a reaction in favor of a renewed culture [127] of the Gregorian chant. The tendency toward sensationalism in church music has now begun to subside266. The true ideal is seen to be in the past. Together with the new appreciation267 of Palestrina, Bach, and the older Anglican Church composers, the Catholic chant is coming to its rights, and an enlightened modern taste is beginning to realize the melodious beauty, the liturgic appropriateness, and the edifying268 power that lie in the ancient unison song. This movement is even now only in its inception269; in the majority of church centres there is still apathy270, and in consequence corruption271 of the old forms, crudity272 and coldness in execution. Much has, however, been already achieved, and in the patient and acute scholarship applied273 in the field of textual criticism by the monks of Solesmes and the church musicians of Paris, Brussels, and Regensburg, in the enthusiastic zeal shown in many churches and seminaries of Europe and America for the attainment274 of a pure and expressive style of delivery, and in the restoration of the Plain Song to portions of the ritual from which it has long been banished275, we see evidences of a movement which promises to be fruitful, not only in this special sphere, but also, as a direct consequence, in other domains276 of church music which have been too long neglected.
The historic status of the Gregorian chant as the basis of the magnificent structure of Catholic church music down to 1600, of the Anglican chant, and to a large extent of the German people’s hymn-tune or choral, has always been known to scholars. The revived study of it has come from an awakened277 perception of its liturgic significance and its inherent beauty. The [128] influence drawn from its peculiarly solemn and elevated quality has begun to penetrate the chorus work of the best Catholic composers of the recent time. Protestant church musicians are also beginning to find advantage in the study of the melody, the rhythm, the expression, and even the tonality of the Gregorian song. And every lover of church music will find a new pleasure and uplift in listening to its noble strains. He must, however, listen sympathetically, expelling from his mind all comparison with the modern styles to which he is accustomed, holding in clear view its historic relations and liturgic function. To one who so attunes278 his mind to its peculiar spirit and purport279, the Gregorian Plain Song will seem worthy280 of the exalted place it holds in the veneration281 of the most august ecclesiastical institution in history.
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1
liturgy
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| n.礼拜仪式 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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constituent
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| n.选民；成分，组分；adj.组成的，构成的 | |
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poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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culminated
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| v.达到极点( culminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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chronologically
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| ad. 按年代的 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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unison
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| n.步调一致，行动一致 | |
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missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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triumphantly
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| ad.得意洋洋地；得胜地；成功地 | |
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melodic
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| adj.有旋律的，调子美妙的 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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vent
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| n.通风口，排放口；开衩；vt.表达，发泄 | |
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renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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secularization
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| n.凡俗化，还俗，把教育从宗教中分离 | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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amalgamated
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| v.（使）（金属）汞齐化( amalgamate的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）合并；联合；结合 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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wedded
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| adj.正式结婚的；渴望…的，执著于…的v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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distinctive
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| adj.特别的，有特色的，与众不同的 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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impersonal
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| adj.无个人感情的，与个人无关的，非人称的 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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unimpeachable
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| adj.无可指责的；adv.无可怀疑地 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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utterance
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| n.用言语表达，话语，言语 | |
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license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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monotonous
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| adj.单调的，一成不变的，使人厌倦的 | |
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extemporizes
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| v.即兴创作，即席演奏( extemporize的第三人称单数 ) | |
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cadence
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| n.（说话声调的）抑扬顿挫 | |
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cadences
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| n.（声音的）抑扬顿挫( cadence的名词复数 )；节奏；韵律；调子 | |
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syllable
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| n.音节；vt.分音节 | |
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utterances
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| n.发声( utterance的名词复数 )；说话方式；语调；言论 | |
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gall
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| v.使烦恼，使焦躁，难堪；n.磨难 | |
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efficiently
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| adv.高效率地，有能力地 | |
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splendors
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| n.华丽( splendor的名词复数 )；壮丽；光辉；显赫 | |
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splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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51
sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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incense
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| v.激怒；n.香，焚香时的烟，香气 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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rhythmic
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| adj.有节奏的，有韵律的 | |
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rhythmical
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| adj.有节奏的，有韵律的 | |
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declamation
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| n. 雄辩，高调 | |
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intensifying
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| v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的现在分词 )；增辉 | |
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tune
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| n.调子；和谐，协调；v.调音，调节，调整 | |
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eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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liturgical
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| adj.礼拜仪式的 | |
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paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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62
hampered
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| 妨碍，束缚，限制( hamper的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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63
oration
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| n.演说，致辞，叙述法 | |
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64
versed
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| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
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65
concealment
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| n.隐藏, 掩盖，隐瞒 | |
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66
subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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67
rapture
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| n.狂喜；全神贯注；着迷；v.使狂喜 | |
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68
dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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69
prerogatives
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| n.权利( prerogative的名词复数 )；特权；大主教法庭；总督委任组成的法庭 | |
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70
underlies
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| v.位于或存在于（某物）之下( underlie的第三人称单数 )；构成…的基础（或起因），引起 | |
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71
momentary
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| adj.片刻的，瞬息的；短暂的 | |
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72
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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73
contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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74
subjective
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| a.主观(上)的，个人的 | |
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75
rite
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| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
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76
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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77
vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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78
modulation
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| n.调制 | |
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79
perpetuating
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| perpetuate的现在进行式 | |
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80
exigencies
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| n.急切需要 | |
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81
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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82
inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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83
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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84
corporate
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| adj.共同的，全体的；公司的，企业的 | |
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85
projection
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| n.发射，计划，突出部分 | |
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86
invoked
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| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
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87
appeased
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的过去式和过去分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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88
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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89
perpetuates
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| n.使永存，使人记住不忘( perpetuate的名词复数 )；使永久化，使持久化，使持续 | |
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90
emancipated
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|
| adj.被解放的，不受约束的v.解放某人（尤指摆脱政治、法律或社会的束缚）( emancipate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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91
merged
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| （使）混合( merge的过去式和过去分词 )； 相融； 融入； 渐渐消失在某物中 | |
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92
labored
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| adj.吃力的，谨慎的v.努力争取(for)( labor的过去式和过去分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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93
strenuously
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| adv.奋发地，费力地 | |
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94
ascetic
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| adj.禁欲的；严肃的 | |
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95
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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96
reactionary
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|
| n.反动者，反动主义者；adj.反动的，反动主义的，反对改革的 | |
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97
irresistibly
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| adv.无法抵抗地，不能自持地；极为诱惑人地 | |
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98
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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99
rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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100
affluence
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| n.充裕，富足 | |
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101
aria
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| n.独唱曲，咏叹调 | |
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102
psalms
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| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
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103
compendium
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| n.简要，概略 | |
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104
hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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105
hymn
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌 | |
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106
canonical
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| n.权威的；典型的 | |
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107
lore
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| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
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108
bequest
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| n.遗赠；遗产，遗物 | |
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109
worthily
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| 重要地，可敬地，正当地 | |
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110
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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111
shrines
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| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
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112
variants
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| n.变体( variant的名词复数 )；变种；变型；（词等的）变体 | |
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113
notation
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| n.记号法，表示法，注释；[计算机]记法 | |
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114
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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115
technically
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| adv.专门地，技术上地 | |
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116
melodious
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| adj.旋律美妙的，调子优美的，音乐性的 | |
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117
enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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118
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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119
regularity
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| n.规律性，规则性；匀称，整齐 | |
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120
recurrence
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| n.复发，反复，重现 | |
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121
interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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122
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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123
artistically
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| adv.艺术性地 | |
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124
emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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125
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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126
treatises
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| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
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127
articulation
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| n.（清楚的）发音；清晰度，咬合 | |
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128
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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129
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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130
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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131
syllables
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| n.音节( syllable的名词复数 ) | |
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132
expressive
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| adj.表现的，表达…的，富于表情的 | |
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133
vowel
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| n.元音；元音字母 | |
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134
analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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135
fathom
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| v.领悟，彻底了解 | |
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136
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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137
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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138
acoustic
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| adj.听觉的，声音的；(乐器)原声的 | |
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139
edifice
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| n.宏伟的建筑物(如宫殿，教室) | |
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140
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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141
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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142
rigid
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| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
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143
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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144
appellation
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| n.名称，称呼 | |
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145
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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146
reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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147
formulated
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| v.构想出( formulate的过去式和过去分词 )；规划；确切地阐述；用公式表示 | |
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148
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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149
supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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150
concurred
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| 同意（concur的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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151
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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152
prosody
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| n.诗体论，作诗法 | |
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153
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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154
afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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155
authoritative
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| adj.有权威的，可相信的；命令式的；官方的 | |
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156
allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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157
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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158
Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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159
sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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160
impartially
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| adv.公平地，无私地 | |
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161
anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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162
panegyrics
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| n.赞美( panegyric的名词复数 )；称颂；颂词；颂扬的演讲或文章 | |
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163
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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164
persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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165
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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166
conservatory
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| n.温室，音乐学院；adj.保存性的，有保存力的 | |
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167
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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168
compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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169
definitive
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| adj.确切的，权威性的；最后的，决定性的 | |
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170
authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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171
profane
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| adj.亵神的，亵渎的；vt.亵渎，玷污 | |
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172
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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173
exuberant
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| adj.充满活力的；（植物）繁茂的 | |
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174
emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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175
bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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176
disappearance
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| n.消失，消散，失踪 | |
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177
demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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178
plausible
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| adj.似真实的，似乎有理的，似乎可信的 | |
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179
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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180
tunes
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| n.曲调，曲子( tune的名词复数 )v.调音( tune的第三人称单数 )；调整；（给收音机、电视等）调谐；使协调 | |
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181
enunciation
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| n.清晰的发音；表明，宣言；口齿 | |
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182
valid
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| adj.有确实根据的；有效的；正当的，合法的 | |
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183
monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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184
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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185
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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186
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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187
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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188
minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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189
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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190
perpetuation
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| n.永存，不朽 | |
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191
antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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192
binding
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| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
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193
adroitness
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194
improvised
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| a.即席而作的,即兴的 | |
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195
dilating
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| v.（使某物）扩大，膨胀，张大( dilate的现在分词 ) | |
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196
vowels
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| n.元音，元音字母( vowel的名词复数 ) | |
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197
adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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198
embroideries
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| 刺绣( embroidery的名词复数 )； 刺绣品； 刺绣法 | |
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199
specialized
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| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
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200
resounded
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| v.（指声音等）回荡于某处( resound的过去式和过去分词 )；产生回响；（指某处）回荡着声音 | |
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201
cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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202
cloister
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| n.修道院；v.隐退，使与世隔绝 | |
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203
emanated
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的过去式和过去分词 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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204
supplanting
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的现在分词 ) | |
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205
hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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206
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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207
adept
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| adj.老练的，精通的 | |
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208
monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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209
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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210
enrolled
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| adj.入学登记了的v.[亦作enrol]( enroll的过去式和过去分词 )；登记，招收，使入伍（或入会、入学等），参加，成为成员；记入名册；卷起，包起 | |
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211
zealous
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| adj.狂热的，热心的 | |
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212
implant
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| vt.注入，植入，灌输 | |
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213
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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214
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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216
enjoined
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| v.命令( enjoin的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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217
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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218
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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diurnal
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| adj.白天的，每日的 | |
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220
imploring
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| 恳求的，哀求的 | |
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221
glorified
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| 美其名的，变荣耀的 | |
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222
creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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223
implore
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| vt.乞求，恳求，哀求 | |
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224
rebuked
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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225
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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226
euphonious
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| adj.好听的，悦耳的，和谐的 | |
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227
conformity
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| n.一致，遵从，顺从 | |
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228
intonation
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| n.语调，声调；发声 | |
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229
inflexibly
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| adv.不屈曲地，不屈地 | |
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230
relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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231
consecration
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| n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式 | |
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232
lighting
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| n.照明，光线的明暗，舞台灯光 | |
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233
kindling
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| n. 点火, 可燃物 动词kindle的现在分词形式 | |
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234
adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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235
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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236
illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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238
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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239
superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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240
mendicant
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| n.乞丐；adj.行乞的 | |
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241
skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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242
lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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243
impatience
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| n.不耐烦，急躁 | |
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244
mingle
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| vt.使混合，使相混；vi.混合起来；相交往 | |
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245
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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246
attired
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| adj.穿着整齐的v.使穿上衣服，使穿上盛装( attire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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247
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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248
recollecting
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| v.记起，想起( recollect的现在分词 ) | |
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249
dictated
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| v.大声讲或读( dictate的过去式和过去分词 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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250
eulogies
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| n.颂词，颂文( eulogy的名词复数 ) | |
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251
wafted
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| v.吹送，飘送，（使）浮动( waft的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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252
salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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253
superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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254
antagonisms
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| 对抗，敌对( antagonism的名词复数 ) | |
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255
transcends
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| 超出或超越（经验、信念、描写能力等）的范围( transcend的第三人称单数 )； 优于或胜过… | |
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256
aesthetic
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| adj.美学的，审美的，有美感 | |
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257
vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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258
beguiled
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| v.欺骗( beguile的过去式和过去分词 )；使陶醉；使高兴；消磨（时间等） | |
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259
custodians
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| n.看守人，保管人( custodian的名词复数 ) | |
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260
archaic
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| adj.(语言、词汇等)古代的，已不通用的 | |
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261
austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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262
fascinations
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| n.魅力( fascination的名词复数 )；有魅力的东西；迷恋；陶醉 | |
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263
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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264
unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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265
deference
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| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
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266
subside
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| vi.平静，平息；下沉，塌陷，沉降 | |
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267
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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268
edifying
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| adj.有教训意味的，教训性的，有益的v.开导，启发( edify的现在分词 ) | |
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269
inception
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| n.开端，开始，取得学位 | |
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270
apathy
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| n.漠不关心，无动于衷；冷淡 | |
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271
corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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272
crudity
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| n.粗糙，生硬；adj.粗略的 | |
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273
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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274
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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275
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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276
domains
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| n.范围( domain的名词复数 )；领域；版图；地产 | |
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277
awakened
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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278
attunes
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| v.使协调( attune的第三人称单数 )；调音 | |
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279
purport
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| n.意义，要旨，大要；v.意味著，做为...要旨，要领是... | |
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280
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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281
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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