It was observed, in very early times, that dew is only formed on clear nights, when, therefore, the stars are shining. It was natural, perhaps, though hardly philosophical5, to conclude that dew is directly shed down upon the earth from the stars; accordingly, we find the reference of dew to stellar influences among the earliest theories propounded6 in explanation of the phenomenon.
A theory somewhat less fanciful, but still depending on supposed stellar influences, was shortly put forward. It was observed that dew is only formed when the atmosphere is at a low temperature; or, more correctly, when the air is at a much lower temperature than has prevailed during the daytime. Combining this peculiarity7 with the former ancient philosophers reasoned in the following manner: Cold generates dew, and dew appears only when the skies are clear—that is, when the stars are shining; hence it follows that the stars generate cold, and thus lead indirectly358 to the formation of dew. Hence arose the singular theory, that as the sun pours down heat upon the earth, so the stars (and also the moon and planets) pour down cold.
Nothing is more common—we may note in passing—than this method of philosophizing, especially in all that concerns weather-changes; and perhaps it would be impossible to find a more signal instance of the mistakes into which men are likely to fall when they adopt this false method of reasoning; for, so far is it from being true that the stars shed cold upon the earth, that the exact reverse is the case. It has been established by astronomers9 and physicists10 that an important portion of the earth’s heat-supply is derived11 from the stars.
Following on these fanciful speculations12 came Aristotle’s theory of dew—celebrated as one of the most remarkable13 instances of the approximation which may sometimes be made to the truth by clever reasoning on insufficient14 observations. For we must not fall into the mistake of supposing, as many have done, that Aristotle framed hypotheses without making observations; indeed, there has seldom lived a philosopher who has made more observations than he did. His mistake was that he extended his observations too widely, not making enough on each subject. He imagined that, by a string of syllogisms, he could make a few supply the place of many observations.
Aristotle added two important facts to our knowledge respecting dew—namely, first, that dew is only formed in serene15 weather; and secondly16, that it is not formed on the summits of mountains. Modern observations show the more correct statement of the case to be that dew is seldom formed either in windy weather or on the tops of mountains. Now, Aristotle reasoned in a subtle and able manner on these two observations. He saw that dew must be the result of processes which are interfered18 with when the air is agitated19, and which do not extend high above the earth’s surface; he conjectured20, therefore, that dew is simply caused by the discharge of vapour from the air.359 “Vapour is a mixture,” he said, “of water and heat, and as long as water can get a supply of heat, vapour rises. But vapour cannot rise high, or the heat would get detached from it; and vapour cannot exist in windy weather, but becomes dissipated. Hence, in high places, and in windy weather, dew cannot be formed for want of vapour.” He derided21 the notion that the stars and moon cause the precipitation of dew. “On the contrary, the sun,” he said, “is the cause; since its heat raises the vapour, from which the dew is formed when that heat is no longer present to keep up the vapour.”
Amidst much that is false, there is here a good deal that is sound. The notion that heat is some substance which floats up the vapour, and may become detached from it in high or windy places, is of course incorrect. So also is the supposition that the dew is produced by the fall of condensed vapour as the heat passes away. Nor is it correct to say that the absence of the sun causes the condensation22 of vapour, since, as we shall presently see, the cold which causes the deposition of dew results from more than the mere23 absence of the sun. But, in pointing out that the discharge of vapour from the air, owing to loss of heat, is the true cause of the deposition of dew, Aristotle expressed an important truth. It was when he attempted to account for the discharge that he failed. It will be observed, also, that his explanation does not account for the observed fact that dew is only formed in clear weather.
Aristotle’s views did not find acceptance among the Greeks or Romans; they preferred to look on the moon, stars, and planets as the agents which cause the deposition of dew. “This notion,” says a modern author, “was too beautiful for a Greek to give up, and the Romans could not do better than follow the example of their masters.”
In the middle ages, despite the credit attached to Aristotle’s name, those who cultivated the physical sciences were unwilling24 to accept his views; for the alchemists (who alone may be said to have been students of nature) founded360 their hopes of success in the search for the philosopher’s stone, the elixir25 vit?, and the other objects of their pursuit, on occult influences supposed to be exercised by the celestial26 bodies. It was unlikely, therefore, that they would willingly reject the ancient theory which ascribed dew to lunar and stellar radiations.
But at length Baptista Porta adduced evidence which justified27 him in denying positively28 that the moon or stars exercise any influence on the formation of dew. He discovered that dew is sometimes deposited on the inside of glass panes29; and again, that a bell-glass placed over a plant in cold weather is more copiously30 covered with dew within than without; nay32, he observed that even some opaque33 substances show dew on their under surface when none appears on the upper. Yet, singularly enough, Baptista Porta rejected that part of Aristotle’s theory which was alone correct. He thought his observations justified him in looking on dew as condensed—not from vapour, as Aristotle thought—but from the air itself.
But now a new theory of dew began to be supported. We have seen that not only the believers in stellar influence, but Aristotle also, looked on dew as falling from above. Porta’s experiments were opposed to this view. It seemed rather as if dew rose from the earth. Observation also showed that the amount of dew obtained at different heights from the ground diminishes with the height. Hence, the new theorists looked upon dew as an exhalation from the ground and from plants—a fine steam, as it were, rising upwards34, and settling principally on the under surfaces of objects.
But this view, like the others, was destined35 to be overthrown36. Muschenbroek, when engaged in a series of observations intended to establish the new view, made a discovery which has a very important bearing on the theory of dew: he found that, instead of being deposited with tolerable uniformity upon different substances,—as falling rain is, for instance, and as the rising rain imagined by the new361 theorists ought to be,—dew forms very much more freely on some substances than on others.
Here was a difficulty which long perplexed37 physicists. It appeared that dew neither fell from the sky nor arose from the earth. The object itself on which the dew was formed seemed to play an important part in determining the amount of deposition.
At length it was suggested that Aristotle’s long-neglected explanation might, with a slight change, account for the observed phenomena. The formation of dew was now looked upon as a discharge of vapour from the air, this discharge not taking place necessarily upwards or downwards38, but always from the air next to the object. But it was easy to test this view. It was understood that the coldness of the object, as compared with the air, was a necessary element in the phenomenon. It followed, that if a cold object is suddenly brought into warm air, there ought to be a deposition of moisture upon the object. This was found to be the case. Any one can readily repeat the experiment. If a decanter of ice-cold water is brought into a warm room, in which the air is not dry—a crowded room, for example—the deposition of moisture is immediately detected by the clouding of the glass. But there is, in fact, a much simpler experiment. When we breathe, the moisture in the breath generally continues in the form of vapour. But if we breathe upon a window-pane, the vapour is immediately condensed, because the glass is considerably40 colder than the exhaled41 air.
But although this is the correct view, and though physicists had made a noteworthy advance in getting rid of erroneous notions, yet a theory of dew still remained to be formed; for it was not yet shown how the cold, which causes the deposition of dew, is itself occasioned. The remarkable effects of a clear sky and serene weather in encouraging the formation of dew, were also still unaccounted for. On the explanation of these and similar points, the chief interest of the subject depends. Science owes the elucidation42 of these difficulties to Dr. Wells, a London physician, who studied362 the subject of dew in the commencement of the present century. His observations were made in a garden three miles from Blackfriars Bridge.
Wells exposed little bundles of wool, weighing, when dry, ten grains each, and determined43 by their increase in weight the amount of moisture which had been deposited upon them. At first, he confined himself to comparing the amount of moisture collected on different nights. He found that although it was an invariable rule that cloudy nights were unfavourable to the deposition of dew, yet that on some of the very clearest and most serene nights, less dew was collected than on other occasions. Hence it became evident that mere clearness was not the only circumstance which favoured the deposition of dew. In making these experiments, he was struck by results which appeared to be anomalous44. He soon found that these anomalies were caused by any obstructions45 which hid the heavens from his wool-packs: such obstructions hindered the deposition of dew. He tried a crucial experiment. Having placed a board on four props46, he laid a piece of wool on the board, and another under it. During a clear night, he found that the difference in the amount of dew deposited on the two pieces of wool was remarkable: the upper one gained fourteen grains in weight, the lower one gained only four grains. He made a little roof over one piece of wool, with a sheet of pasteboard; and the increase of weight was reduced to two grains, while a piece of wool outside the roof gained no less than sixteen grains in weight.
Leaving these singular results unexplained for a while, Dr. Wells next proceeded to test the temperature near his wool-packs. He found that where dew is most copiously produced, there the temperature is lowest. Now, since it is quite clear that the deposition of dew was not the cause of the increased cold—for the condensation of vapour is a process producing heat—it became quite clear that the formation of dew is dependent on and proportional to the loss of heat.
363 And now Wells was approaching the solution of the problem he had set himself; for it followed from his observations, that such obstructions as the propped47 board and the pasteboard roof kept in the heat. It followed also, from the observed effects of clear skies, that clouds keep in the heat. Now, what sort of heat is that which is prevented from escaping by the interference of screens, whether material or vaporous? There are three processes by which heat is transmitted from one body to another,—these are, conduction, convection, and radiation. The first is the process by which objects in contact communicate their heat to each other, or by which the heat in one part of a body is gradually transmitted to another part. The second is the process by which heat is carried from one place to another by the absolute transmission of heated matter. The third is that process by which heat is spread out in all directions, in the same manner as light. A little consideration will show that the last process is that with which we are alone concerned; and this important result flows from Dr. Wells’ experiments, that the rate of the deposition of dew depends on the rate at which bodies part with their heat by radiation. If the process of radiation is checked, dew is less copiously deposited, and vice48 versa.
When we consider the case of heat accompanied by light, we understand readily enough that a screen may interfere17 with the emission49 of radiant heat. We use a fire-screen, for instance, with the object of producing just such an interference. But we are apt to forget that what is true of luminous50 heat is true also of that heat which every substance possesses. In fact, we do not meet with many instances in which the effect of screens in preventing the loss of obscure heat is very noteworthy. There are some, as the warmth of a green-house at night, and so on; but they pass unnoticed, or are misunderstood. It was in this way that the explanation of dew-phenomena had been so long delayed. The very law on which it is founded had been practically applied, while its meaning had not been recognized. “I had often364 in the pride of half-knowledge,” says Wells, “smiled at the means frequently employed by gardeners to protect tender plants from cold, as it appeared to me impossible that a thin mat, or any such flimsy substance, could prevent them from attaining51 the temperature of the atmosphere, by which alone I thought them liable to be injured. But when I had seen that bodies on the surface of the earth become, during a still and serene night, colder than the atmosphere, by radiating their heat to the heavens, I perceived immediately a just reason for the practice which I had before deemed useless.”
And now all the facts which had before seemed obscure were accounted for. It had been noticed that metallic52 plates were often dry when grass or wood was copiously moistened. Now, we know that metals part unwillingly53 with their heat by radiation, and therefore the temperature of a metal plate exposed in the open air is considerably higher than that of a neighbouring piece of wood. For a similar reason, dew is more freely deposited on grass than on gravel54. Glass, again, is a good radiator55, so that dew is freely deposited on glass objects,—a circumstance which is very annoying to the telescopist. The remedy employed is founded on Wells’ observations—a cylinder56 of tin or card, called a dew-cap, is made to project beyond the glass, and thus to act as a screen, and prevent radiation.
We can now also interpret the effects of a clear sky. Clouds act the part of screens, and check the emission of radiant heat from the earth. This fact has been noticed before, but misinterpreted, by Gilbert White of Selborne. “I have often observed,” he says, “that cold seems to descend57 from above; for when a thermometer hangs abroad on a frosty night, the intervention58 of a cloud shall immediately raise the mercury ten degrees, and a clear sky shall again compel it to descend to its former gauge59.” Another singular mistake had been made with reference to the power which clouds possess of checking the emission of radiant heat. It had been observed that on moonlit nights the eyes are apt to suffer in a peculiar8 way, which has occasionally brought on365 temporary blindness. This had been ascribed to the moon’s influence, and the term moon-blindness had therefore been given to the affection. In reality, the moon has no more to do with this form of blindness than the stars have to do with the formation of dew. The absence of clouds from the air is the true cause of the mischief60. There is no sufficient check to the radiation of heat from the eyeballs, and the consequent chill results in temporary loss of sight, and sometimes even in permanent injury.
Since clouds possess this important power, it is clear that while they are present in the air there can never be a copious31 formation of dew, which requires, as we have seen, a considerable fall in the temperature of the air around the place of deposition. When the air is clear, however, radiation proceeds rapidly, and therefore dew is freely formed.
But it might seem that since objects in the upper regions of the air part with their radiant heat more freely than objects on the ground, the former should be more copiously moistened with dew than the latter. That the fact is exactly the reverse is thus explained. The cold which is produced by the radiation of heat from objects high in the air is communicated to the surrounding air, which, growing heavier, descends61 towards the ground, its place being supplied by warmer air. Thus the object is prevented from reducing the air in its immediate39 neighbourhood to so low a temperature as would be attained62 if this process of circulation were checked. Hence, a concave vessel63 placed below an object high in air, would serve to increase the deposition of dew by preventing the transfer of the refrigerated air. We are not aware that the experiment has ever been tried, but undoubtedly64 it would have the effect we have described. An object on the ground grows cold more rapidly, because the neighbouring air cannot descend after being chilled, but continues in contact with the object; also cold air is continually descending65 from the neighbourhood of objects higher in air which are parting with their radiant heat, and the cold air thus descending takes the place of warmer air, whose neighbourhood366 might otherwise tend to check the loss of heat in objects on the ground.
Here, also, we recognize the cause of the second peculiarity detected by Aristotle—namely, that dew is only formed copiously in serene weather. When there is wind, it is impossible that the refrigerated air around an object which is parting with its radiant heat, can remain long in contact with the object. Fresh air is continually supplying the place of the refrigerated air, and thus the object is prevented from growing so cold as it otherwise would.
In conclusion, we should wish to point out the important preservative66 influence exercised during the formation of dew. If the heat which is radiated from the earth, or from objects upon it, during a clear night, were not repaired in any way, the most serious injury would result to vegetation. For instance, if the sun raised no vapour during the day, so that when night came on the air was perfectly67 dry, and thus the radiant heat passed away into celestial space without compensation, not a single form of vegetation could retain its life during the bitter cold which would result. But consider what happens. The sun’s heat, which has been partly used up during the day in supplying the air with aqueous vapour, is gradually given out as this vapour returns to the form of water. Thus the process of refrigeration is effectually checked, and vegetation is saved from destruction. There is something very beautiful in this. During the day, the sun seems to pour forth68 his heat with reckless profusion69, yet all the while it is being silently stored up; during the night, again, the earth seems to be radiating her heat too rapidly into space, yet all the while a process is going on by which the loss of heat is adequately compensated70. Every particle of dew which we brush from the blades of grass, as we take our morning rambles71, is an evidence of the preservative action of nature.
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1
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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deposition
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| n.免职，罢官；作证；沉淀；沉淀物 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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propounded
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| v.提出（问题、计划等）供考虑[讨论]，提议( propound的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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astronomers
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| n.天文学者，天文学家( astronomer的名词复数 ) | |
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physicists
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| 物理学家( physicist的名词复数 ) | |
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11
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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12
speculations
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| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
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13
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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15
serene
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| adj. 安详的，宁静的，平静的 | |
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16
secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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agitated
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| adj.被鼓动的，不安的 | |
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conjectured
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| 推测，猜测，猜想( conjecture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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derided
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| v.取笑，嘲笑( deride的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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condensation
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| n.压缩，浓缩；凝结的水珠 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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elixir
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| n.长生不老药，万能药 | |
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celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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positively
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| adv.明确地，断然，坚决地；实在，确实 | |
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panes
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| 窗玻璃( pane的名词复数 ) | |
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copiously
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| adv.丰富地，充裕地 | |
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copious
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| adj.丰富的，大量的 | |
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nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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opaque
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| adj.不透光的；不反光的，不传导的；晦涩的 | |
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upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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perplexed
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| adj.不知所措的 | |
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downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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exhaled
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| v.呼出，发散出( exhale的过去式和过去分词 )；吐出（肺中的空气、烟等），呼气 | |
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elucidation
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| n.说明，阐明 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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anomalous
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| adj.反常的；不规则的 | |
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obstructions
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| n.障碍物( obstruction的名词复数 )；阻碍物；阻碍；阻挠 | |
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props
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| 小道具； 支柱( prop的名词复数 )； 支持者； 道具； （橄榄球中的）支柱前锋 | |
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47
propped
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| 支撑，支持，维持( prop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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48
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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emission
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| n.发出物，散发物；发出，散发 | |
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luminous
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| adj.发光的，发亮的；光明的；明白易懂的；有启发的 | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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metallic
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| adj.金属的；金属制的；含金属的；产金属的；像金属的 | |
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unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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gravel
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| n.砂跞；砂砾层；结石 | |
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55
radiator
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| n.暖气片，散热器 | |
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cylinder
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| n.圆筒，柱(面)，汽缸 | |
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57
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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59
gauge
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| v.精确计量；估计；n.标准度量；计量器 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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descends
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| v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 )；下去；下降；下斜 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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64
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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65
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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66
preservative
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| n.防腐剂；防腐料；保护料；预防药 | |
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67
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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68
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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69
profusion
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| n.挥霍；丰富 | |
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70
compensated
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| 补偿，报酬( compensate的过去式和过去分词 )； 给（某人）赔偿（或赔款） | |
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71
rambles
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| （无目的地）漫游( ramble的第三人称单数 )； （喻）漫谈； 扯淡； 长篇大论 | |
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