The time has now arrived for expounding6 the phenomena of Trance; an acquaintance with which is necessary to enable you to understand the source and nature of the delusions7 with which I have yet to deal.
You have already had glimpses of this condition. Arnod Paole was in a trance in the cemetery8 of Meduegna—Timarchus was in a trance in the cave of Trophonius.
Let me begin by developing certain preliminary conceptions relating to the subject.
I. Common observation, the spontaneous course of our reflections, our instinctive9 interpretation10 of nature, reveal to us matter, motion, and intelligence, as the co-existing phenomena of the universe. In the farthest distances of space cognisable to our senses, we discern matter and motion, and their subordination to intelligence. Upon the earth’s surface we discern, in the finely designed mechanism11 of each plant, the agency of life; and we recognise in the microcosm of each animal a living organization, fitted to be the recipient12 of individual consciousness, or of personal being.
II. The intelligence which is communicated to living beings becomes, to a great extent, dependent upon the organization with which it is combined. Thus every men87tal faculty13 is found to have its definite seat and habitat in the bodily frame. The principal successes of modern physiologists14 have been achieved in determining with what precise parts of the nervous system each affection of consciousness is functionally15 associated. Different classes of nerves are found to be appropriated to sensation and volition16; different parts of the spinal17 cord are proved to minister to different offices; and of the subdivisions of the brain, each is thought to correspond with a separate faculty, or sentiment, or appetite. So far the mental forces, or operations of a living human being, may be conceived to be essentially18 esoneural, (εσω νευζον.) Each appears to have its proper and special workshop or laboratory in the nervous system.
III. But there are not wanting facts which make it reasonable to think that our mental forces or operations transcend19 occasionally and partially20 the limits of our corporeal21 frame. The phenomena adverted22 to in the preceding letter, in connexion with the narrative23 of Zschokke’s seer-gift, hardly seem to admit of explanation on any other supposition. Nor is it a very improbable conjecture24, that phenomena of the same class form, as it were, the complements25 of many ordinary esoneural operations. Possibly in common perception the mind directly reaches the object perceived, being excited thereto by the antecedent material impressions on our organs, and the sensations which follow. To denote mental phenomena of the kind I am supposing, I propose the term exoneural, (εξω νευζον.) I venture even, following out this idea, to conjecture further, that the Od force may somehow furnish the dynamic bridge along which our exoneural apprehension26 travels.
IV. The affections of consciousness would thus be in88 part esoneural, in part exoneural, during the healthy and normal state of our being; the esoneural part being executed in immediate27 connexion with its appropriate organ, and every manifestation28 of it being attended with a physical change in the latter.
V. But it is conceivable, on the assumption of mind being a separate principle from matter, that the human soul may be capable of retaining its union with the body in a new, unusual, and abnormal relation. The hypothesis is startling enough. I adopt it only from seeing no other way of accounting29 for certain facts which, with the evidence of their reality, will presently be brought forward. I venture to suppose that the mind of a living man may energize30 abnormally in two ways: first, that a much larger share of its operations may be conducted exoneurally—that is, out of the body—than usual; secondly31, that the esoneural mental functions may be conducted within the body in unaccustomed organs, deserting those naturally appropriated to them. Two or three instances have been already given, which favour, at all events, the supposition of the possibility of such an abnormal relation between the mind and the body being realized. But in most of the instances hitherto adverted to, the normal relation may be supposed to have remained.
VI. Thus all the ordinary phenomena of sensorial illusions at once are esoneural, and suppose the persistence32 of the normal relation of mind and body. The material organ to which the physical agencies preceding sensation are propagated being irritated, is to be supposed to excite in the mind sensuous33 recollections or fancies that are so vivid as to appear realities.
VII. In mental delusions, again, there is no reason for surmising34 the intervention35 of the abnormal relation. But89 what are mental delusions? They are a part of insanity. And what is insanity? I will summarily state its features; for some of the instances which remain for explanation are referrible to it, and because I delight to crush a volume into a paragraph.
The phenomena of insanity may be arranged under five heads: The first, the insane temperament36; the next three the fundamental forms of mental derangement37; the fifth, the paroxysmal state. The features of the insane temperament are various; some of them are incompatible38 with the simultaneous presence of others. When a group of them is present, as a change in natural character, without insanity, insanity is threatened: no form of insanity manifests itself without the presence of some of them. The features of the insane temperament are these: The patient withdraws his sympathies from those around him, is shy, reserved, cunning, suspicious, with a troubled air, as if he felt something to be wrong, and wonders if you see it; he is capricious, and has flaws of temper; being talkative, he is flighty and extravagant39; he is hurried in his thoughts, and mode of speaking, and gestures; he has fits of absence, in which he talks aloud to himself; he is restless, and anxious for change of place. Of the elementary forms of insanity, one consists in the entertainment of mental delusions: the patient imagines himself the Deity40, or a prophet, or a monarch41, or that he has become enormously wealthy; or that he is possessed42 by the devil, or is persecuted43 by invisible beings, or is dead, or very poor, or that he is the victim of public or private injustice44. The second form is moral perversion45: the patient is depressed46 in spirits without a cause, perhaps to the extent of meditating47 suicide; or he feels an unaccountable desire to take the lives of others; or he is im90pelled to steal, or to do gratuitous48 mischief49; or he is a sot; or he has fits of ungovernable and dangerous rage. The third form exhibits itself in loss of connexion of ideas, failure of memory, loss of common intelligence, disregard of the common decencies of life. Each of these three elementary forms is sometimes met with alone; generally two are combined. Sensorial illusions are common in insanity; auditory, unaccompanied by visual illusions, are almost peculiar50 to it, and to the cognate51 affection of delirium52 from fever or inflammation of the brain. To the head of the paroxysmal state belongs the history of exacerbations of insanity, of their sudden outbursts in persons of the insane temperament, of their preferential connexion with this or that antecedent condition of the patient, of their occasional periodicity.
VII. In congenital idiotcy and imbecility, the relation of the mind and brain is normal. Often the defective53 organization is apparent through which the intelligence is repressed. In many countries a popular belief prevails that the imbecile have occasional glimpses of higher knowledge. There is no reason evident why their minds should not be susceptible54 of the abnormal relation.
VIII. In sleep, the mind and brain are in the normal relation. But what is sleep, psychically55 considered?
It is best to begin by looking into the mental constituents57 of waking. There is then passing before us an endless current of images and reflections, furnished from our recollections, and suggested by our hopes and our fears, by pursuits that interest us, or by their own inter-associations. This current of thought is continually being changed or modified, through impressions made upon our senses. It is further liable to be still more importantly and systematically58 modified by the exercise91 of the faculty of Attention. The attention operates in a twofold manner. It enables us to detain at pleasure any subject of thought before the mind; and, when not on such urgent duty, it vigilantly59 inspects every idea which presents itself, and reports if it be palpably unsound or of questionable60 tendency. To speak with more precision, it is a power we have of controlling our thoughts, which we drill to warn us whenever the suggested ideas conflict with our experience or our principles.
Then of sleep. We catch glimpses of its nature at the moments of falling asleep and of waking. When it is the usual time for sleep, if our attention happen to be livelily excited, it is in vain we court sleep. When we are striving to contend against the sense of overwhelming fatigue61, what we feel is, that we can no longer command our attention. Then we are lost, or are asleep. Then the head and body drop forwards; we have ceased to attend to the maintenance of our equilibrium62. Any iteration of gentle, impressions, enough to divert attention from other objects, without arousing it, promotes sleep.
Thus we recognise as the psychical56 basis of sleep the suspension of the attention.
Are any other mental faculties63 suspended in sleep? Sensation and the influence of the will over the muscular system are not; for our dreams are liable to be shaped by what we hear. The sleeper64, without waking, will turn his head away from a bright light, will withdraw his arm if you pinch it, will utter loud words which he dreams he is employing. The seeming insensibility in sleep, the apparent suspension of the influence of the will, are simply consequences of the suspension of attention.
I have, on another occasion, shown that the organs in92 which sensations are realized, and volition energizes65, are the segments of the cranio-spinal cord in which the sentient66 and voluntary nerves are rooted. I think I see now that the seat of the attention is the “medulla oblongata.” For—alas for the imperfect conceptions into which the imperfection of language as an instrument of thought forces us!—what is the faculty of attention, which we have been considering almost as a separate element of mind, but the individual “ich” energizing67, now keenly noticing impressions and thoughts, now allowing them to pass, while it looks on with lazy indifference68; now, at length, worn out and exhausted69, and incapable70 of further work? But this inspecting and contrasting operation, where should it more naturally find its bureau than at a point situated71 between the organs of the understanding and those of the will?—that is to say, somewhere at the junction72 of the spinal marrow73 and the brain. Well, Magendie ascertained74 that just at that region there is a small portion of nervous matter, pressure upon which causes immediately heavy sleep or stupor75, while its destruction—for instance, the laceration of the little organ with the point of a needle—instantaneously and irrevocably extinguishes life.4 This precious link in our system is, reasonably enough, stowed away in the securest part of our frame—that is to say, within the head, upon the strong central bone of the base of the skull76. How came the fancy of Shakspeare by the happy figure which seems to adumbrate77 Magendie’s discovery of to-day, in poetry written three hundred years ago?
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“Within the hollow crown,
That rounds the mortal temples of a king,
Keeps Death his court; and there the antic sits
Mocking his state, and grinning at his pomp;
Allowing him a breath, a little hour,
To monarchize, be feared, and kill with looks;
Infusing him with self and vain conceits78,
As if the flesh that walls about our life
Were brass79 impregnable. Till, humoured thus,
He comes at last, and, with a little pin,
Bores through his castle wall—and farewell king!”
To return to our argument, Are the sentiments and higher faculties of the mind suspended during sleep? Certainly not, if dreaming be a part of natural sleep, as I hold it to be. For there are some who dream always; others, who say they seldom dream; others, who disavow dreaming at all. But the simplest view of these three cases is to suppose that in sleep all persons always dream, but that all do not remember their dreams. This imputed80 forgetfulness is not surprising, considering the importance of the attention to memory, and that in sleep the attention is suspended. Ordinary dreams present one remarkable81 feature; nothing in them appears wonderful. We meet and converse82 with friends long dead; the improbability of the event never crosses our minds. One sees a horse galloping83 by, and calls after it as one’s friend—Mr. so-and-so. We fly with agreeable facility, and explain to an admiring circle how we manage it. Every absurdity84 passes unchallenged. The attention is off duty. It is important to remark that there is nothing in common dreams to interfere85 with the purpose of sleep, which is repose86. The cares and interests of our waking life never recur87 to us; or, if they do, are not recognised as our own. The faculties are not really energizing;94 their seeming exercise is sport; they are unharnessed, and are gambolling88 and rolling in idle relaxation89. That is their refreshment90.
The attention alone slumbers91; or, through some slight organic change, it is unlinked from the other faculties, and they are put out of gear. This is the basis of sleep. The faculties are all in their places; but the attention is off duty; itself asleep, or indolently keeping watch of time alone.
In contrast with this picture of the sleeping and waking states, of the alternation of which our mental life consists, I have now to hold up to view another conception, resembling it, but different, vague, imposing92, of gigantic proportions, the monstrous93 double of the first—like the mocking spectre of the Hartz, which yet is but your own shadow cast by the level sunbeams on the morning mist.
To answer to this conception, there is more than the ideal entity94 made up of the different forms of trance. For although trance may occur as a single sleep-like fit of moderate duration, yet it more frequently recurs—often periodically, dividing the night or day with common sleep or common waking; or it may be persistent95 for days and weeks—in which case, if it generally maintain one character, it is yet liable to have wakings of its own.
Then the first division of trance is into trance-sleep and trance-waking. In extreme cases it is easy to tell trance-sleep from common sleep, trance-waking from common waking; but there are varieties with less prominent features, in which it is difficult, at first, to say whether the patient is entranced at all.
There is, upon the whole, more alliance between sleep95 and trance, than between waking and trance. Or, in a large class of cases, the patient falls into trance when asleep. It is a cognate phenomenon to this that the common initiatory96 stage of trance is a trance-sleep.
Trance is of more frequent occurrence among the young than among the middle-aged97 or old people. It occurs more frequently among young women than among young men. In other words, the liability to trance is in proportion to delicacy98 of organization, and higher nervous susceptibility.
But what is trance? The question will be best answered by exhibiting its several phases. In the mean time, it may be laid down that the basis of trance is the supervention of the abnormal relation of the mind and nervous system. In almost all its forms it is easy to show that some of the mental functions are no longer located in their pristine99 organs. The most ordinary change is the departure of common sensation from the organ of touch. Next, sight leaves the organs of vision. To make up for these desertions, if the patient wake in trance, either the same senses reappear elsewhere, or some unaccountable mode of general perception manifests itself.
A strict alliance exists between trance and the whole family of spasms100. Most of them are exclusively developed in connexion with it; all are liable to be combined with it; they are all capable of being excited by the same influences which produce trance; so they often occur vicariously, or alternate with trance. One kind is catalepsy; the body motionless, statue-like, but the tone of spasm3 maintained low, so that you may arrange the statue in what attitude you will, and it preserves it. A second is catochus, like the preceding, but with a higher96 power of spasm, so that the joints101 are rigidly102 fixed103; and if you overcome one for a moment with superior strength, being let go, it flies back to where it was. A third, partial spasm of equal rigidity104, arching the body forwards or backwards105 or laterally106, or fixing one limb or more. The fourth, clonic spasm, for instance, the contortions107 and convulsive struggles of epilepsy. The fifth, an impulse to rapid and varied108 muscular actions, nearly equalling convulsions in violence, but combined so as to travesty109 ordinary voluntary motion; this is the dance of St. Veitz, which took its name from an epidemic110 outbreak in Germany in the thirteenth century, that was supposed to be cured by the interposition of the saint; then persons of all classes were seized in groups in public with a fury of kicking, shuffling111, dancing together, till they dropt. Now, the same agency is manifested either in a violent rush, and disposition112 to climb with inconceivable agility113 and precision; or alternately to twist the features, roll the neck, and jerk and swing the limbs even to the extent of dislocating them.
The causes of trance are mostly mental. Trance appears to be contagious114. Viewed medically, it is seldom directly dangerous. It is a product of over-excitability, which time blunts. The disposition to trance is seldom manifested beyond a few months, or, at most, two or three years. For epilepsy is not a form of trance; it is, however, a mixed mental and spasmodic seizure5, much allied115 to trance. Those who suffer from its attacks are found to be among the most susceptible of induced trance.
But let me again ask, what then is trance?
Trance is a peculiar mental seizure, (totally distinct from insanity, with which again, however, it may be97 combined,) the patient taken with which appears profoundly absorbed or rapt, and as if lost more or less completely to surrounding objects or impressions, or at all events to the ordinary mode of perceiving them; he is likewise more or less entirely116 lost to his former recollections. The mental seizures may or may not occur simultaneously117 or alternately with spasmodic seizures of any and every character.
This definition of trance conveys, I am afraid, no very exact or distinct picture; but it is the definition of a genus, and a genus is necessarily an abstraction. However, it gives the features essential to all the forms of trance. A true general notion of trance can, indeed, only be realized by studying in detail each of the forms it includes. These are separated by the broadest colours. In the one extreme an entranced person appears dead, and no sign of life is recognisable in him; in the opposite, he appears to be much as usual, and perfectly118 impressible by any thing around him, so that it demands careful observation to establish that he is not simply awake.
Then trance presents no fewer than five specific forms, distinguished119 each from the other by clear characters, their essential identity being established by each at times passing into either of the others. The terms by which I propose to designate the five primary forms of trance are—Death-trance, Trance-coma, Initiatory Trance, Half-waking-trance, Waking-trance. The five, however, admit, as I have before said, of being arranged in two groups: the first three forms enumerated120 constituting varieties of trance-sleep; the two latter constituting varieties of waking-trance. The next letter will98 treat of the first group; the two following will treat of the two varieties of the second.
I have observed that the causes of trance are for the most part mental impressions; but it will be found that certain physical influences may produce the same results. The causes of trance, whether mental or physical, deserve again to be regarded in three lights. Either they have operated blindly and fortuitously, or they have been resorted to and used as agents to produce some vague and imperfectly understood result, or they have been skilfully121 and intelligently directed to bring out the exact phenomena which have followed. It is with trance supervening in the two former ways that I alone propose at present to deal; that is to say, with trance as it was imperfectly known as an agent in superstition122, or as a rare and marvellous form of nervous disease. Of the third case of trance, as it may be artificially induced, I shall afterwards and finally speak.
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1
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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insanity
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| n.疯狂，精神错乱；极端的愚蠢，荒唐 | |
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spasm
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| n.痉挛，抽搐；一阵发作 | |
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seizures
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| n.起获( seizure的名词复数 )；没收；充公；起获的赃物 | |
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seizure
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| n.没收；占有；抵押 | |
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expounding
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| 论述，详细讲解( expound的现在分词 ) | |
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delusions
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| n.欺骗( delusion的名词复数 )；谬见；错觉；妄想 | |
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cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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recipient
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| a.接受的,感受性强的 n.接受者,感受者,容器 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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functionally
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| adv.机能上地，官能地 | |
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volition
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| n.意志；决意 | |
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spinal
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| adj.针的，尖刺的，尖刺状突起的；adj.脊骨的，脊髓的 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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transcend
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| vt.超出，超越(理性等)的范围 | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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corporeal
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| adj.肉体的，身体的；物质的 | |
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adverted
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| 引起注意（advert的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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25
complements
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| 补充( complement的名词复数 )； 补足语； 补充物； 补集（数） | |
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apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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accounting
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| n.会计，会计学，借贷对照表 | |
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energize
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| vt.给予(某人或某物)精力、能量 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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sensuous
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| adj.激发美感的；感官的，感觉上的 | |
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surmising
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| v.臆测，推断( surmise的现在分词 )；揣测；猜想 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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derangement
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| n.精神错乱 | |
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incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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43
persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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perversion
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| n.曲解；堕落；反常 | |
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depressed
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| adj.沮丧的，抑郁的，不景气的，萧条的 | |
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meditating
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| a.沉思的，冥想的 | |
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gratuitous
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| adj.无偿的，免费的；无缘无故的，不必要的 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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cognate
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| adj.同类的，同源的，同族的；n.同家族的人，同源词 | |
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delirium
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| n. 神智昏迷,说胡话;极度兴奋 | |
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defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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susceptible
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| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
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psychically
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| adv.精神上 | |
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psychical
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| adj.有关特异功能现象的；有关特异功能官能的；灵魂的；心灵的 | |
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constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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systematically
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| adv.有系统地 | |
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vigilantly
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| adv.警觉地，警惕地 | |
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questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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equilibrium
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| n.平衡，均衡，相称，均势，平静 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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sleeper
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| n.睡眠者，卧车，卧铺 | |
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energizes
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| v.给予…精力，能量( energize的第三人称单数 )；使通电 | |
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sentient
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| adj.有知觉的，知悉的；adv.有感觉能力地 | |
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energizing
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| v.给予…精力，能量( energize的现在分词 )；使通电 | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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junction
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| n.连接，接合；交叉点，接合处，枢纽站 | |
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marrow
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| n.骨髓；精华；活力 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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stupor
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| v.昏迷；不省人事 | |
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skull
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| n.头骨；颅骨 | |
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adumbrate
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| vt.画轮廓，预示 | |
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conceits
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| 高傲( conceit的名词复数 )； 自以为； 巧妙的词语； 别出心裁的比喻 | |
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brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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imputed
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| v.把（错误等）归咎于( impute的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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galloping
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| adj. 飞驰的, 急性的 动词gallop的现在分词形式 | |
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absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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repose
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| v.(使)休息；n.安息 | |
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recur
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| vi.复发，重现，再发生 | |
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gambolling
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| v.蹦跳，跳跃，嬉戏( gambol的现在分词 ) | |
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relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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refreshment
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| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
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slumbers
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| 睡眠，安眠( slumber的名词复数 ) | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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monstrous
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| adj.巨大的；恐怖的；可耻的，丢脸的 | |
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entity
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| n.实体，独立存在体，实际存在物 | |
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persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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initiatory
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| adj.开始的；创始的；入会的；入社的 | |
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middle-aged
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| adj.中年的 | |
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delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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pristine
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| adj.原来的，古时的，原始的，纯净的，无垢的 | |
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spasms
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| n.痉挛( spasm的名词复数 )；抽搐；（能量、行为等的）突发；发作 | |
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joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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rigidity
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| adj.钢性，坚硬 | |
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105
backwards
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| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
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laterally
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| ad.横向地；侧面地；旁边地 | |
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contortions
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| n.扭歪，弯曲；扭曲，弄歪，歪曲( contortion的名词复数 ) | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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109
travesty
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| n.歪曲，嘲弄，滑稽化 | |
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epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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shuffling
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| adj. 慢慢移动的, 滑移的 动词shuffle的现在分词形式 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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agility
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| n.敏捷，活泼 | |
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114
contagious
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| adj.传染性的，有感染力的 | |
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115
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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116
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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117
simultaneously
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| adv.同时发生地，同时进行地 | |
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118
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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119
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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120
enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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skilfully
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| adv. (美skillfully)熟练地 | |
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122
superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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