His public work was in truth done. His further service consisted of the government of Cilicia for a year—an employment that was odious18 to him, though his performance of it was a blessing19 to the province. After that there came the vain struggle with C?sar, the attempt to make the best of C?sar victorious20, the last loud shriek21 on behalf of the Republic, and then all was over. The fourteen years of life which yet remained to him sufficed for erecting22 that literary monument of which I have spoken, but his public usefulness was done. To the reader of his biography it will seem that these coming fourteen years will lack much of the grace which adorned23 the last twenty. The biographer will be driven to make excuses, which he will not do without believing in the truth of them, but doubting much whether he may beget24 belief in others. He thinks that he can see the man passing from one form to another—his doubting devotion to Pompey, his enforced adherence25 to C?sar, his passionate26 opposition27 to Antony; but he can still see him true to his country, and ever on the alert against tyranny and on behalf of pure patriotism28.
9At the present we have to deal with Cicero in no vacillating spirit, but loudly exultant29 and loudly censorious. Within the two years following his return he made a series of speeches, in all of which we find the altered tone of his mind. There is no longer that belief in the ultimate success of justice, and ultimate triumph of the Republic, which glowed in his Verrine and Catiline orations31. He is forced to descend32 in his aspirations33. It is not whether Rome shall be free, or the bench of justice pure, but whether Cicero shall be avenged34 and Gabinius punished. It may have been right—it was right—that Cicero should be avenged and Gabinius punished; but it must be admitted that the subjects are less alluring36.
His first oration30, as generally received, was made to the Senate in honor of his return. The second was addressed to the people on the same subject. The third was spoken to the college of priests, with the view of recovering the ground on which his house had stood, and which Clodius had attempted to alienate37 forever by dedicating it to a pretended religious purpose. The next, as coming on our list, though not so in time, was addressed again to the Senate concerning official reports made by the public soothsayers as interpreters of occult signs, as to whether certain portents38 had been sent by the gods to show that Cicero ought not to have back his house. Before this was made he had defended Sextius, who as Tribune had been peculiarly serviceable in assisting his return. This was before a bench of judges; and separated from this, though made apparently40 at the same time, is a violent attack upon Vatinius, one of C?sar's creatures, who was a witness against Sextius. Then there is a seventh, regarding the disposition41 of the provinces among the Propr?tors and Proconsuls, the object of which was to enforce the recall of Piso from Macedonia and Gabinius from Syria, and to win C?sar's favor by showing that C?sar should be allowed to keep the two Gauls and Illyricum. To these must be added two others, made within the same period, for C?lius and Balbus. The close friendship between Cicero and the young 10 man C?lius was one of the singular details of the orator's life. Balbus was a Spaniard, attached to C?sar, and remarkable as having been the first man not an Italian who achieved the honor of the Consulship.
It has been disputed whether the first four of these orations were really the work of Cicero, certain German critics and English scholars having declared them to be "parum Ciceronias"—too little like Cicero. That is the phrase used by Nobbe, who published a valuable edition of all Cicero's works, after the text of Ernesti, in a single volume. Mr. Long, in his introduction to these orations, denounces them in language so strong as to rob them of all chance of absolute acceptance from those who know the accuracy of Mr. Long's scholarship.2 There may probably have been subsequent interpolations. The first of the four, however, is so closely referred to by Cicero himself in the speech made by him two years subsequently in the defence of Plancius, that the fact of an address to the Senate in the praise of those who had assisted him in his return cannot be doubted; and we are expressly told by the orator that, because of the importance of the occasion, he had written it out before he spoke10 it.3 As to the Latinity, it is not within my scope, nor indeed within my power, to express a confident opinion; but as to the matter of the speech, I think that Cicero, in his then frame of mind, might have uttered what is attributed to him. Having said so much, I shall best continue my narrative42 by dealing43 with the four speeches as though they were genuine.
b.c. 57, ?tat. 50.
11Cicero landed at Brundisium on the 5th of August, the day on which his recall from exile had been enacted44 by the people, and there met his daughter Tullia, who had come to welcome him back to Italy on that her birthday. But she had come as a widow, having just lost her first husband, Piso Frugi. At this time she was not more than nineteen years old. Of Tullia's feelings we know nothing from her own expressions, as they have not reached us; but from the warmth of her father's love for her, and by the closeness of their friendship, we are led to imagine that the joy of her life depended more on him than on any of her three husbands. She did not live long with either of them, and died soon after the birth of a child, having been divorced from the third. I take it, there was much of triumph in the meeting, though Piso Frugi had died so lately.
The return of Cicero to Rome was altogether triumphant45. It must be remembered that the contemporary accounts we have had of it are altogether from his own pen. They are taken chiefly from the orations I have named above, though subsequent allusions46 to the glory of his return to Rome are not uncommon48 in his works. But had his boasting not been true, the contradictions to them would have been made in such a way as to have reached our ears. Plutarch, indeed, declares that Cicero's account of the glory of his return fell short of the truth.
It may be taken for granted that with that feeble monster, the citizen populace of Rome, Cicero had again risen to a popularity equal to that which had been bestowed49 upon him when he had just driven Catiline out of Rome. Of what nature were the crowds who were thus loud in the praise of their great Consul, and as loud afterward50 in their rejoicings at the return of the great exile, we must form our own opinion from circumstantial evidence. There was a mass of people, with keen ears taking artistic51 delight in eloquence52 and in personal graces, but determined53 to be idle, and to be fed as well as 12 amused in their idleness; and there were also vast bands of men ready to fight—bands of gladiators they have been called, though it is probable that but few of them had ever been trained to the arena—whose business it was to shout as well as to fight on behalf of their patrons. We shall not be justified54 in supposing that those who on the two occasions named gave their sweet voices for Cicero were only the well-ordered, though idle, proportion of the people, whereas they who had voted against him in favor of Clodius had all been assassins, bullies55, and swordsmen. We shall probably be nearer the mark if we imagine that the citizens generally were actuated by the prevailing56 feelings of their leaders at the moment, but were carried into enthusiasm when enabled, without detriment57 to their interests, to express their feelings for one who was in truth popular with them. When Cicero, after the death of the five conspirators59, declared that the men "had lived"—"vixerunt"—his own power was sufficient to insure the people that they would be safe in praising him. When he came back to Rome, Pompey had been urgent for his return, and C?sar had acceded60 to it. When the bill was passed for banishing61 him, the Triumvirate had been against him, and Clodius had been able to hound on his crew. But Milo also had a crew, and Milo was Cicero's friend. As the Clodian crew helped to drive Cicero from Rome, so did Milo's crew help to bring him back again.
Cicero, on reaching Rome, went at once to the Capitol, to the temple of Jupiter, and there returned thanks for the great thing that had been done for him. He was accompanied by a vast procession who from the temple went with him to his brother's house, where he met his wife, and where he resided for a time. His own house in the close neighborhood had been destroyed. He reached Rome on the 4th of September, and on the 5th an opportunity was given to the then hero of the day for expressing his thanks to the Senate for what they had done for him. His intellect had not grown rusty62 in Macedonia, though he had been idle. On the 5th, Cicero spoke 13 to the Senate; on the 6th, to the people. Before the end of the month he made a much longer speech to the priests in defence of his own property. Out of the full heart the mouth speaks, and his heart was very full of the subject.
His first object was to thank the Senate and the leading members of it for their goodness to him. The glowing language in which this is done goes against the grain with us when we read continuously the events of his life as told by himself. His last grievous words had been expressions of despair addressed to Atticus; now he breaks out into a p?an of triumph. We have to remember that eight months had intervened, and that the time had sufficed to turn darkness into light. "If I cannot thank you as I ought, O Conscript Fathers, for the undying favors which you have conferred on me, on my brother, and my children, ascribe it, I beseech63 you, to the greatness of the things you have done for me, and not to the defect of my virtue64." Then he praises the two Consuls7, naming them, Lentulus and Metellus—Metellus, as the reader will remember, having till lately been his enemy. He lauds65 the Pr?tors and the Tribunes, two of the latter members having opposed his return; but he is loudest in praise of Pompey—that "Sampsiceramus," that "Hierosolymarius," that "Arabarches" into whose character he had seen so clearly when writing from Macedonia to Atticus—that "Cn. Pompey who, by his valor66, his glory, his achievements, stands conspicuously67 the first of all nations, of all ages, of all history." We cannot but be angry when we read the words, though we may understand how well he understood that he was impotent to do anything for the Republic unless he could bring such a man as Pompey to act with him. We must remember, too, how impossible it was that one Roman should rise above the falsehood common to Romans. We cannot ourselves always escape even yet from the atmosphere of duplicity in which policy delights. He describes the state of Rome in his absence. "When I was gone, you"—you, the Senate—"could 14 decree nothing for your citizens, or for your allies, or for the dependent kings. The judges could give no judgment68; the people could not record their votes; the Senate availed nothing by its authority. You saw only a silent Forum69, a speechless Senate-house, a city dumb and deserted70." We may suppose that Rome was what Cicero described it to be when he was in exile, and C?sar had gone to his provinces; but its condition had been the result of the crushing tyranny of the Triumvirate rather than of Cicero's absence.
Lentulus, the present Consul, had been, he says, a second father, almost a god, to him. But he would not have needed the hand of a Consul to raise him from the ground, had he not been wounded by consular71 hands. Catulus, one of Rome's best citizens, had told him that though Rome had now and again suffered from a bad Consul, she had never before been afflicted72 by two together. While there was one Consul worthy73 of the name, Catulus had declared that Cicero would be safe. But there had come two, two together, whose spirits had been so narrow, so low, so depraved, so burdened with greed and ignorance, "that they had been unable to comprehend, much less to sustain the splendor74 of the name of Consul. Not Consuls were they, but buyers and sellers of provinces." These were Piso and Gabinius, of whom the former was now governor of Macedonia, and the latter of Syria. Cicero's scorn against these men, who as Consuls had permitted his exile, became a passion with him. His subsequent hatred75 of Antony was not as bitter. He had come there to thank the assembled Senators for their care of him, but he is carried off so violently by his anger that he devotes a considerable portion of his speech to these indignant utterances76. The reader does not regret it. Abuse makes better reading than praise, has a stronger vitality77, and seems, alas78, to come more thoroughly79 from the heart! Those who think that genuine invective80 has its charms would ill spare Piso and Gabinius.
He goes back to his eulogy81, and names various Pr?tors and 15 officers who have worked on his behalf. Then he declares that by the view of the present Consul, Lentulus, a decree has been passed in his favor more glorious than has been awarded to any other single Roman citizen—namely that from all Italy those who wished well to their country should be collected together for the purpose of bringing him back from his banishment—him, Cicero. There is much in this in praise of Lentulus, but more in praise of Cicero. Throughout these orations we feel that Cicero is put forward as the hero, whereas Piso and Gabinius are the demons82 of the piece. "What could I leave as a richer legacy83 to my posterity," he goes on to say, opening another clause of his speech, "than that the Senate should have decreed that the citizen who had not come forward in my defence was one regardless of the Republic." By these boastings, though he was at the moment at the top of the ladder of popularity, he was offending the self-importance of all around him. He was offending especially Pompey, with whom it was his fate to have to act.4 But that was little to the offence he was giving to those who were to come many centuries after him, who would not look into the matter with sufficient accuracy to find that his vanity deserved forgiveness because of his humanity and desire for progress. "O Lentulus," he says, at the end of the oration, "since I am restored to the Republic, as with me the Republic is itself restored, I will slacken nothing in my efforts at liberty; but, if it may be possible, will add something to my energy." In translating a word here and there as I have done, I feel at every expression my incapacity. There is no such thing as good translation. If you wish to drink the water, with its life and vigor85 in it, you must go to the fountain and drink it there.
16On the day following he made a similar speech to the people—if, indeed, the speech we have was from his mouth or his pen—as to which it has been remarked that in it he made no allusion47 to Clodius, though he was as bitter as ever against the late Consuls. From this we may gather that, though his audience was delighted to hear him, even in his self-praise, there might have been dispute had he spoken ill of one who had been popular as Tribune. His praise of Pompey was almost more fulsome86 than that of the day before, and the same may be said of his self-glorification. Of his brother's devotion to him he speaks in touching87 words, but in words which make us remember how untrue to him afterward was that very brother. There are phrases so magnificent throughout this short piece that they obtain from us, as they are read, forgiveness for the writer's faults. "Sic ulciscar facinorum singula." Let the reader of Latin turn to chapter ix. of the oration and see how the speaker declares that he will avenge35 himself against the evil-doers whom he has denounced.
Cicero, though he had returned triumphant, had come back ruined in purse, except so far as he could depend on the Senate and the people for reimbursing88 to him the losses to which he had been subjected. The decree of the Senate had declared that his goods should be returned to him, but the validity of such a promise would depend on the value which might be put upon the goods in question. His house on the Palatine Hill had been razed89 to the ground; his Tusculan and Formian villas91 had been destroyed; his books, his pictures, his marble columns, his very trees, had been stolen; but, worst of all, an attempt had been made to deprive him forever of the choicest spot of ground in all the city, the Park Lane of Rome, by devoting the space which had belonged to him to the service of one of the gods. Clodius had caused something of a temple to Liberty to be built there, because ground so consecrated92 was deemed at Rome, as with us, to be devoted93 by consecration94 to the perpetual service of religion. It was with 17 the view of contesting this point that Cicero made his next speech, Pro2 Domo Sua, for the recovery of his house, before the Bench of Priests in Rome. It was for the priests to decide this question. The Senate could decree the restitution95 of property generally, but it was necessary that that spot of ground should be liberated96 from the thraldom97 of sacerdotal tenure98 by sacerdotal interference. These priests were all men of high birth and distinction in the Republic. Nineteen among them were "Consulares," or past-Consuls. Superstitious99 awe100 affects more lightly the consciences of priests than the hearts of those who trust the priests for their guidance. Familiarity does breed contempt. Cicero, in making this speech, probably felt that, if he could carry the people with him, the College of Priests would not hold the prey101 with grasping hands. The nineteen Consulares would care little for the sanctity of the ground if they could be brought to wish well to Cicero. He did his best. He wrote to Atticus concerning it a few days after the speech was made, and declared that if he had ever spoken well on any occasion he had done so then, so deep had been his grief, and so great the importance of the occasion;5 and he at once informs his friend of the decision of the Bench, and of the ground on which it was based. "If he who declares that he dedicated102 the ground had not been appointed to that business by the people, nor had been expressly commanded by the people to do it, then that spot of ground can be restored without any breach103 of religion." Cicero asserts that he was at once congratulated on having gained his cause, the world knowing very well that no such authority had been conferred on Clodius. In the present mood of Rome, all the priests, with the nineteen Consulares, were no doubt willing that Cicero should have back his ground. The Senate had to 18interpret the decision, and on the discussion of the question among them Clodius endeavored to talk against time. When, however, he had spoken for three hours, he allowed himself to be coughed down. It may be seen that in some respects even Roman fortitude104 has been excelled in our days.
In the first portion of this speech, Pro Domo Sua, Cicero devotes himself to a matter which has no bearing on his house. Concomitant with Cicero's return there had come a famine in Rome. Such a calamity105 was of frequent occurrence, though I doubt whether their famines ever led to mortality so frightful106 as that which desolated107 Ireland just before the repeal108 of the Corn Laws. No records, as far as I am aware, have reached us of men perishing in the streets; but scarcity109 was not uncommon, and on such occasions complaints would become very loud. The feeding of the people was a matter of great difficulty, and subject to various chances. We do not at all know what was the number to be fed, including the free and the slaves, but have been led by surmises110 to suppose that it was under a million even in the time of Augustus. But even though the number was no more than five hundred thousand at this time, the procuring111 of food must have been a complicated and difficult matter. It was not produced in the country. It was imported chiefly from Sicily and Africa, and was plentiful112 or the reverse, not only in accordance with the seasons but as certain officers of state were diligent113 and honest, or fraudulent and rapacious114. We know from one of the Verrine orations the nature of the laws on the subject, but cannot but marvel that, even with the assistance of such laws, the supply could be maintained with any fair proportion to the demand. The people looked to the government for the supply, and when it fell short would make their troubles known with seditious grumblings, which would occasionally assume the guise115 of insurrection. At this period of Cicero's return food had become scarce and dear; and Clodius, who was now in arms against Pompey as well as against Cicero, caused it to be believed that19 the strangers flocking into Rome to welcome Cicero had eaten up the food which should have filled the bellies116 of the people. An idea farther from truth could hardly have been entertained: no chance influx117 of visitors on such a population could have had the supposed effect. But the idea was spread abroad, and it was necessary that something should be done to quiet the minds of the populace. Pompey had hitherto been the resource in State difficulties. Pompey had scattered118 the pirates, who seem, however, at this period to have been gathering119 head again. Pompey had conquered Mithridates. Let Pompey have a commission to find food for Rome. Pompey himself entertained the idea of a commission which should for a time give him almost unlimited120 power. C?sar was increasing his legions and becoming dominant121 in the West. Pompey, who still thought himself the bigger man of the two, felt the necessity of some great step in rivalry122 of C?sar. The proposal made on his behalf was that all the treasure belonging to the State should be placed at his disposal; that he should have an army and a fleet, and should be for five years superior in authority to every Proconsul in his own province. This was the first great struggle made by Pompey to strangle the growing power of C?sar. It failed altogether.6 The fear of C?sar had already become too great in the bosoms123 of Roman Senators to permit them to attempt to crush him in his absence. But a mitigated124 law was passed, enjoining125 Pompey to provide the food required, and conferring upon him certain powers. Cicero was nominated as his first lieutenant126, and accepted the position. He never acted, however, giving it up to his brother Quintus. A speech which he made to the people on the passing of the law is not extant; but as there was hot blood about it in Rome, he took the opportunity of justifying127 the appointment of Pompey in the earlier portion of this ora20tion to the priests. It must be understood that he did not lend his aid toward giving those greater powers which Pompey was anxious to obtain. His trust in Pompey had never been a perfect trust since the first days of the Triumvirate. To Cicero's thinking, both Pompey and C?sar were conspirators against the Republic. C?sar was the bolder, and therefore the more dangerous. It might probably come to pass that the services of Pompey would be needed for restraining C?sar. Pompey naturally belonged to the "optimates," while C?sar was as naturally a conspirator58. But there never again could come a time in which Cicero would willingly intrust Pompey with such power as was given to him nine years before by the Lex Manilia. Nevertheless, he could still say grand things in praise of Pompey. "To Pompey have been intrusted wars without number, wars most dangerous to the State, wars by sea and wars by land, wars extraordinary in their nature. If there be a man who regrets that this has been done, that man must regret the victories which Rome has won." But his abuse of Clodius is infinitely128 stronger than his praise of Pompey. For the passages in which he alluded129 to the sister of Clodius I must refer the reader to the speech itself. It is impossible here to translate them or to describe them. And these words were spoken before the College of Priests, of whom nineteen were Consulares! And they were prepared with such care that Cicero specially84 boasted of them to Atticus, and declares that they should be put into the hands of all young orators131. Montesquieu says that the Roman legislators, in establishing their religion, had no view of using it for the improvement of manners or of morals.7 The nature of their rites132 and ceremonies gives us evidence enough that it was so. If further testimony133 were wanting, it might be found 21in this address, Ad Pontifices. Cicero himself was a man of singularly clean life as a Roman nobleman, but, in abusing his enemy, he was restrained by no sense of what we consider the decency134 of language.
He argues the question as to his house very well, as he did all questions. He tells the priests that the whole joy of his restoration must depend on their decision. Citizens who had hitherto been made subject to such penalties had been malefactors; whereas, it was acknowledged of him that he had been a benefactor135 to the city. Clodius had set up on the spot, not a statue of Liberty, but, as was well known to all men, the figure of a Greek prostitute. The priests had not been consulted. The people had not ratified136 the proposed consecration. Of the necessity of such authority he gives various examples. "And this has been done," he says, "by an impure137 and impious enemy of all religions—by this man among women, and woman among men—who has gone through the ceremony so hurriedly, so violently, that his mind and his tongue and his voice have been equally inconsistent with each other." "My fortune," he says, as he ends his speech, "all moderate as it is, will suffice for me. The memory of my name will be a patrimony138 sufficient for my children;" but if his house be so taken from him, so stolen, so falsely dedicated to religion, he cannot live without disgrace. Of course he got back his house; and with his house about ￡16,000 for its re-erection, and ￡4000 for the damage done to the Tusculan villa90 with ￡2000 for the Formian villa. With these sums he was not contented139; and indeed they could hardly have represented fairly the immense injury done to him.
b.c. 56, ?tat. 51.
So ended the work of the year of his return. From the following year, besides the speeches, we have twenty-six letters of which nine were written to Lentulus, the late Consul, who had now gone to Cilicia as Proconsul. Lentulus had befriended him, and he found it necessary to show his gratitude140 by a continued correspondence, and by a 22 close attendance to the interests of the absent officer. These letters are full of details of Roman politics, too intricate for such a work as this—perhaps I might almost say too uninteresting, as they refer specially to Lentulus himself. In one of them he tells his friend that he has at last been able to secure the friendship of Pompey for him. It was, after all, but a show of friendship. He has supped with Pompey, and says that when he talks to Pompey everything seems to go well: no one can be more gracious than Pompey. But when he sees the friends by whom Pompey is surrounded he knows, as all others know, that the affair is in truth going just as he would not have it.8 We feel as we read these letters, in which Pompey's name is continually before us, how much Pompey prevailed by his personal appearance, by his power of saying gracious things, and then again by his power of holding his tongue. "You know the slowness of the man," he says to Lentulus, "and his silence."9 A slow, cautious, hypocritical man, who knew well how to use the allurements141 of personal manners! These letters to Lentulus are full of flattery.
There are five letters to his brother Quintus, dealing with the politics of the time, especially with the then King of Egypt, who was to be, or was not to be, restored. From all these things, however, I endeavor to abstain11 as much as possible, as matters not peculiarly affecting the character of Cicero. He gives his brother an account of the doings in the Senate, which is interesting as showing us how that august assembly conducted itself. While Pompey was speaking with much dignity, Clodius and his supporters in vain struggled with shouts and cries to put him down. At noon Pompey sat down, and Clodius got possession of the rostra, and in the middle of a violent tumult142 remained on his feet for two hours. Then, on Pompey's side, the "optimates" sang indecent songs 23—"versus obscenissimi"—in reference to Clodius and his sister Clodia. Clodius, rising in his anger, demanded, "Who had brought the famine?" "Pompey," shouted the Clodians. "Who wanted to go to Egypt?" demanded Clodius. "Pompey," again shouted his followers143. After that, at three o'clock, at a given signal, they began to spit upon their opponents. Then there was a fight, in which each party tried to drive the others out. The "optimates" were getting the best of it, when Cicero thought it as well to run off lest he should be hurt in the tumult.10 What hope could there be for an oligarchy144 when such things occurred in the Senate? Cicero in this letter speaks complacently145 of resisting force by force in the city. Even Cato, the law-abiding, precise Cato, thought it necessary to fall into the fashion and go about Rome with an armed following. He bought a company of gladiators and circus-men; but was obliged to sell them, as Cicero tells his brother with glee, because he could not afford to feed them.11
There are seven letters also to Atticus—always more interesting than any of the others. There is in these the most perfect good-feeling, so that we may know that the complaints made by him in his exile had had no effect of estranging146 his friend; and we learn from them his real, innermost thoughts, as they are not given even to his brother—as thoughts have surely seldom been confided147 by one man of action to another. Atticus had complained that he had not been allowed to see a certain letter which Cicero had written to C?sar. This he had called a παλινωδ?α, or recantation, and it had been addressed to C?sar with the view of professing148 a withdrawal149 to some extent of his opposition to the Triumvirate. It had been of sufficient moment to be talked about. Atticus had heard of it, and had complained that it had not been sent to him. Cicero puts forward his excuses, and then bursts out with the real truth:
24"Why should I nibble150 round the unpalatable morsel151 which has to be swallowed?" The recantation had seemed to himself to be almost base, and he had been ashamed of it. "But," says he, "farewell to all true, upright, honest policy. You could hardly believe what treachery there is in those who ought to be our leading men, and who would be so if there was any truth in them."12 He does not rely upon those who, if they were true to their party, would enable the party to stand firmly even against C?sar. Therefore it becomes necessary for him to truckle to C?sar, not for himself but for his party. Unsupported he cannot stand in open hostility152 to C?sar. He truckles. He writes to C?sar, singing C?sar's praises. It is for the party rather than for himself, but yet he is ashamed of it.
There is a letter to Lucceius, an historian of the day then much thought of, of whom however our later world has heard nothing. Lucceius is writing chronicles of the time, and Cicero boldly demands to be praised. "Ut ornes mea postulem"13—"I ask you to praise me." But he becomes much bolder than that. "Again and again I beseech you, without any beating about the bush, to speak more highly of me than you perhaps think that I deserve, even though in doing so you abandon all the laws of history." Then he uses beautiful flattery to his correspondent. Alexander had wished to be painted only by Apelles. He desires to be praised by none but Lucceius. Lucceius, we are told, did as he was asked.
b.c. 56, ?tat. 51.
I will return to the speeches of the period to which this chapter is devoted, taking that first which he made to the Senate as to the report of the soothsayers respecting certain prodigies153. Readers familiar with Livy will remember how frequently, in time of disaster, the anger of Heaven was supposed to have been shown by signs and miracles, indications that the gods were displeased154, and that expia 25tions were necessary.14 The superstition155, as is the fate of all superstitions156, had frequently been used for most ungodlike purposes. If a man had a political enemy, what could do him better service than to make the populace believe that a house had been crushed by a thunder-bolt, or that a woman had given birth to a pig instead of a child, because Jupiter had been offended by that enemy's devices? By using such a plea the Grecians got into Troy, together with the wooden horse, many years ago. The Scotch157 worshippers of the Sabbath declared the other day, when the bridge over the Tay was blown away, that the Lord had interposed to prevent travelling on Sunday!
Cicero had not been long back from his exile when the gods began to show their anger. A statue of Juno twisted itself half round; a wolf had been seen in the city; three citizens were struck with lightning; arms were heard to clang, and then wide subterranean158 noises. Nothing was easier than the preparation and continuing of such portents. For many years 26past the heavens above and the earth beneath had been put into requisition for prodigies.15 The soothsayers were always well pleased to declare that there had been some neglect of the gods. It is in the nature of things that the superstitious tendencies of mankind shall fall a prey to priestcraft. The quarrels between Cicero and Clodius were as full of life as ever. In this year, Clodius being ?dile, there had come on debates as to a law passed by C?sar as Consul, in opposition to Bibulus, for the distribution of lands among the citizens. There was a question as to a certain tax which was to be levied159 on these lands. The tax-gatherers were supported by Cicero, and denounced by Clodius. Then Clodius and his friends found out that the gods were showering their anger down upon the city because the ground on which Cicero's house had once stood was being desecrated160 by its re-erection. An appeal was made to the soothsayers. They reported, and Cicero rejoined. The soothsayers had of course been mysterious and doubtful. Cicero first shows that the devotion of his ground to sacred purposes had been an absurdity161, and then he declares that the gods are angry, not with him but with Clodius. To say that the gods were not angry at all was more than Cicero dared. The piece, taken as a morsel of declamatory art, is full of vigor, is powerful in invective, and carries us along in full agreement with the orator; but at the conclusion we are led to wish that Cicero could have employed his intellect on higher matters.
There are, however, one or two passages which draw the reader into deep mental inquiry162 as to the religious feelings of the time. In one, which might have been written by Paley, Cicero declares his belief in the creative power of some god—or 27gods, as he calls them.16 And we see also the perverse163 dealings of the Romans with these gods, dealings which were very troublesome—not to be got over except by stratagem164. The gods were made use of by one party and the other for dishonest state purposes. When Cicero tells his hearers what the gods intended to signify by making noises in the sky, and other divine voices, we feel sure that he was either hoaxing165 them who heard him or saying what he knew they would not believe.
b.c. 56, ?tat. 51.
Previous to the speech as to the "aruspices," he had defended Sextius—or Sestius, as he is frequently called—on a charge brought against him by Clodius in respect of violence. We at once think of the commonplace from Juvenal:
"Quis tulerit Gracchos de seditione querentes."
But Rome, without remonstrating166, put up with any absurdity of that kind. Sextius and Milo and others had been joined together in opposing the election of Clodius as ?dile, and had probably met violence with violence. As surely as an English master of hounds has grooms167 and whips ready at his command, Milo had a band of bullies prepared for violence. Clodius himself had brought an action against Milo, who was defended by Pompey in person. The case against Sextius was intrusted to Albinovanus, and Hortensius undertook the defence. Sextius before had been one of the most forward in obtaining the return of Cicero, and had travelled into Gaul to see C?sar and to procure168 C?sar's assent169. C?sar had not then assented170; but not the less great had been the favor conferred by Sextius on Cicero. Cicero had been grateful, but it seems that Sextius had thought not sufficiently171 grateful; hence there had grown up something of a quarrel. But Cicero, when he heard of the proceeding172 against his old friend, at once offered his assistance. For a Roman to have more than one counsel to plead for him 28was as common as for an Englishman. Cicero was therefore added to Hortensius, and the two great advocates of the day spoke on the same side. We are told that Hortensius managed the evidence, showing, probably, that Clodius struck the first blow. Cicero then addressed the judges with the object of gaining their favor for the accused. In this he was successful, and Sextius was acquitted173. As regards Sextius and his quarrel with Clodius, the oration has but little interest for us. There is not, indeed, much about Sextius in it. It is a continuation of the p?an which Cicero was still singing as to his own return, but it is distinguished174 from his former utterances by finer thought and finer language. The description of public virtue as displayed by Cato has perhaps, in regard to melody of words and grandeur175 of sentiment, never been beaten. I give the orator's words below in his own language, because in no other way can any idea of the sound be conveyed.17 There is, too, a definition made very cleverly to suit his own point of view between the conservatives and the liberals of the day. "Optimates" is the name by which the former are known; the latter are called "Populares."18
Attached to this speech for Sextius is a declamation13 against Vatinius, who was one of the witnesses employed by the prosecutor176. Instead of examining this witness regularly, he talked 29him down by a separate oration. We have no other instance of such a forensic177 man?uvre either in Cicero's practice or in our accounts of the doings of other Roman advocates. This has reached us as a separate oration. It is a coarse tirade178 of abuse against a man whom we believe to have been bad, but as to whom we feel that we are not justified in supposing that we can get his true character here. He was a creature of C?sar's, and Cicero was able to say words as to Vatinius which he was unwilling179 to speak as to C?sar and his doings. It must be added here that two years later Cicero pleaded for this very Vatinius, at the joint180 request of C?sar and Pompey, when Vatinius on leaving the Pr?torship was accused of corruption181.
b.c. 56, ?tat. 51.
The nature of the reward to which the aspiring182 oligarch of Rome always turned his eyes has been sufficiently explained. He looked to be the governor of a province. At this period of which we are speaking there was no reticence183 in the matter. Syria, or Macedonia, or Hispania had been the prize, or Sicily, or Sardinia. It was quite understood that an aspiring oligarch went through the dust and danger and expense of political life in order that at last he might fill his coffers with provincial184 plunder185. There were various laws as to which these governments were allotted186 to the plunderers. Of these we need only allude130 to the Leges Semproni?, or laws proposed b.c. 123, by Caius Sempronius Gracchus, for the distribution of those provinces which were to be enjoyed by Proconsuls. There were pr?torian provinces and consular provinces, though there was no law making it sure that any province should be either consular or pr?torian. But the Senate, without the interference of the people and free from the Tribunes' veto, had the selection of provinces for the Consuls; whereas, for those intended for the Pr?tors, the people had the right of voting and the Tribunes of the people had a right of putting a veto on the propositions made. Now, in this year there came before the Senate a discussion as to the fate of three Proconsuls—not as to the primary allocation of provinces to 30 them, but on the question whether they should be continued in the government which they held. Piso was in Macedonia, where he was supposed to have disgraced himself and the Empire which he served. Gabinius was in Syria, where it was acknowledged that he had done good service, though his own personal character stood very low. C?sar was lord in the two Gauls—that is, on both sides of the Alps, in Northern Italy, and in that portion of modern France along the Mediterranean187 which had been already colonized—and was also governor of Illyricum. He had already made it manifest to all men that the subjugation188 of a new empire was his object rather than provincial plunder. Whether we love the memory of C?sar as of a great man who showed himself fit to rule the world, or turn away from him as from one who set his iron heel on the necks of men, and by doing so retarded189 for centuries the liberties of mankind, we have to admit that he rose by the light of his own genius altogether above the ambition of his contemporaries. If we prefer, as I do, the humanity of Cicero, we must confess to ourselves the supremacy190 of C?sar, and acknowledge ourselves to belong to the beaten cause. "Victrix causa Deis placuit; sed victa Catoni." In discussing the fate of these proconsular officials we feel now the absurdity of mixing together in the same debate the name of Piso and Gabinius with that of C?sar. Yet such was the subject in dispute when Cicero made his speech, De Provinciis Consularibus, as to the adjudication of the consular provinces.
There was a strong opinion among many Senators that C?sar should be stopped in his career. I need not here investigate the motives191, either great or little, on which this opinion was founded. There was hardly a Senator among them who would not have wished C?sar to be put down, though there were many who did not dare declare their wishes. There were reasons for peculiar39 jealousy192 on the part of the Senate. Cisalpine Gaul had been voted for him by the intervention193 of the people, and especially by that of the Tribune Vatinius—to31 C?sar who was Consularis, whose reward should have been an affair solely194 for the Senate. Then there had arisen a demand, a most unusual demand, for the other Gaul also. The giving of two provinces to one governor was altogether contrary to the practice of the State; but so was the permanent and acknowledged continuance of a conspiracy195 such as the Triumvirate unusual. C?sar himself was very unusual. Then the Senate, feeling that the second province would certainly be obtained, and anxious to preserve some shred196 of their prerogative197, themselves voted the Farther Gaul. As it must be done, let it at any rate be said that they had done it. But as they had sent C?sar over the Alps so they could recall him, or try to recall him. Therefore, with the question as to Piso and Gabinius, which really meant nothing, came up this also as to C?sar, which meant a great deal.
But C?sar had already done great things in Gaul. He had defeated the Helvetians and driven Ariovistus out of the country. He had carried eight legions among the distant Belg?, and had conquered the Nervii. In this very year he had built a huge fleet, and had destroyed the Veneti, a seafaring people on the coast of the present Brittany. The more powerful he showed himself to be, the more difficult it was to recall him; but also the more desirable in the eyes of many. In the first portion of his speech Cicero handles Piso and Gabinius with his usual invective. There was no considerable party desirous of renewing to them their governments, but Cicero always revelled198 in the pleasure of abusing them. He devotes by far the longer part of his oration to the merit of C?sar.19 As for recalling him, it would be irrational199. Who had counted more enemies in Rome than Marius? but did they recall Marius 32when he was fighting for the Republic?20 Hitherto the Republic had been forced to fear the Gauls. Rome had always been on the defence against them. Now it had been brought about by C?sar that the limits of the world were the limits of the Roman Empire.21 The conquest was not yet finished, but surely it should be left to him who had begun it so well. Even though C?sar were to demand to return himself, thinking that he had done enough for his own glory, it would be for the Senators to restrain him—for the Senate to bid him finish the work that he had in hand.22 As for himself, continued Cicero, if C?sar had been his enemy, what of that? C?sar was not his enemy now. He had told the Senate what offers of employment C?sar had made him. If he could not forget, yet he would forgive, former injuries.23
It is important for the reading of Cicero's character that we should trace the meaning of his utterances about C?sar from this time up to the day on which C?sar was killed—his utterances in public, and those which are found in his letters to Atticus and his brother. That there was much of pretence—of falsehood, if a hard word be necessary to suit the severity of those who judge the man hardly—is admitted. How he praised Pompey in public, dispraising him in private, at one and the same moment, has been declared. How he applied200 for praise, whether deserved or not, has been shown. In excuse, not in defence, of this I allege201 that the Romans of the day were habitually202 false after this fashion. The application to Lucceius proves the habitual203 falseness not of Cicero only, but of Lucceius also; and the private words written to Atticus, in opposition to the public words with which Atticus was well acquainted, prove the falseness also of Atticus. It was Roman; it was Italian; it was cosmopolitan204; it was human. I only wish that it were possible to declare that it is no longer Italian, no longer cosmopolitan, no longer human. To this 33day it is very difficult even for an honorable man to tell the whole truth in the varying circumstances of public life. The establishment of even a theory of truth, with all the advantages which have come to us from Christianity, has been so difficult, hitherto so imperfect, that we ought, I think, to consider well the circumstances before we stigmatize205 Cicero as specially false. To my reading he seems to have been specially true. When C?sar won his way up to power, Cicero was courteous206 to him, flattered him, and, though, never subservient207, yet was anxious to comply when compliance208 was possible. Nevertheless, we know well that the whole scheme of C?sar's political life was opposed to the scheme entertained by Cicero. It was Cicero's desire to maintain as much as he could of the old form of oligarchical209 rule under which, as a constitution, the Roman Empire had been created. It was C?sar's intention to sweep it all away. We can see that now; but Cicero could only see it in part. To his outlook the man had some sense of order, and had all the elements of greatness. He was better, at any rate, than a Verres, a Catiline, a Clodius, a Piso, or a Gabinius. If he thought that by flattery he could bring C?sar somewhat round, there might be conceit210 in his so thinking, but there could be no treachery. In doing so he did not abandon his political beau ideal. If better times came, or a better man, he would use them. In the mean time he could do more by managing C?sar than by opposing him. He was far enough from succeeding in the management of C?sar, but he did do much in keeping his party together. It was in this spirit that he advocated before the Senate the maintenance of C?sar's authority in the two Gauls. The Senate decreed the withdrawal of Piso and Gabinius, but decided211 to leave C?sar where he was. Mommsen deals very hardly with Cicero as to this period of his life. "They used him accordingly as—what he was good for—an advocate." "Cicero himself had to thank his literary reputation for the respectful treatment which he experienced from C?sar." The question we have34 to ask ourselves is whether he did his best to forward that scheme of politics which he thought to be good for the Republic. To me it seems that he did do so. He certainly did nothing with the object of filling his own pockets. I doubt whether as much can be said with perfect truth as to any other Roman of the period, unless it be Cato.
Balbus, for whom Cicero also spoke in this year, was a Spaniard of Cadiz, to whom Pompey had given the citizenship212 of Rome, who had become one of C?sar's servants and friends, and whose citizenship was now disputed. Cicero pleaded in favor of the claim, and gained his cause. There were, no doubt, certain laws in accordance with which Balbus was or was not a citizen; but Cicero here says that because Balbus was a good man, therefore there should be no question as to his citizenship.24 This could hardly be a good legal argument. But we are glad to have the main principles of Roman citizenship laid down for us in this oration. A man cannot belong to more than one State at a time. A man cannot be turned out of his State against his will. A man cannot be forced to remain in his State against his will.25 This Balbus was acknowledged as a Roman, rose to be one of C?sar's leading ministers, and was elected Consul of the Empire b.c. 40. Thirty-four years afterward his nephew became Consul. Nearly three centuries after that, a.d. 237, a descendant of Balbus was chosen as Emperor, under the name of Balbinus, and is spoken of by Gibbon with eulogy.26
I know no work on Cicero written more pleasantly, or inspired by a higher spirit of justice, than that of Gaston Boissier, of the French Academy, called Cicéron et ses Amis. Among his chapters one is devoted to Cicero's remarkable intimacy213 with C?lius, which should be read by all who wish to study Cicero. We have now come to the speech which he 35made in this year in defence of C?lius. C?lius had entered public life very early, as the son of a rich citizen who was anxious that his heir should be enabled to shine as well by his father's wealth as by his own intellect. When he was still a boy, according to our ideas of boyhood, he was apprenticed214 to Cicero,27 as was customary, in order that he might pick up the crumbs215 which fell from the great man's table. It was thus that a young man would hear what was best worth hearing; thus he would become acquainted with those who were best worth knowing; thus that he would learn in public life all that was best worth learning. C?lius heard all, and knew many, and learned much; but he perhaps learned too much at too early an age. He became bright and clever, but unruly and dissipated. Cicero, however, loved him well. He always liked the society of bright young men, and could forgive their morals if their wit were good. Clodius—even Clodius, young Curio, C?lius and afterward Dolabella, were companions with whom he loved to associate. When he was in Cilicia, as Proconsul, this C?lius became almost a second Atticus to him, in the writing of news from Rome.
But C?lius had become one of Clodia's many lovers, and seems for a time to have been the first favorite, to the detriment of poor Catullus. The rich father had, it seems, quarrelled with his son, and C?lius was in want of money. He borrowed it from Clodia, and then, without paying his debt, treated Clodia as she had treated Catullus. The lady tried to get her money back, and when she failed she accused her former lover of an attempt to poison her. This she did so that C?lius was tried for the offence. There were no less than four accusers, or advocates, on her behalf, of whom her brother was one. C?lius was defended by Crassus as well as 36by Cicero, and was acquitted. All these cases combined political views with criminal charges. C?lius was declared to have been a Catilinian conspirator. He was also accused of being in debt, of having quarrelled with his father, of having insulted women, of having beaten a Senator, of having practised bribery, of having committed various murders, and of having perpetrated all social and political excesses to which his enemies could give a name. It was probable that his life had been very irregular, but it was not probably true that he had attempted to poison Clodia.
The speech is very well worth the trouble of reading. It is lively, bright, picturesque216, and argumentative; and it tells the reader very much of the manners of Rome at the time. It has been condemned217 for a passage which, to my taste, is the best in the whole piece. Cicero takes upon himself to palliate the pleasures of youth, and we are told that a man so grave, so pure, so excellent in his own life, should not have condescended218 to utter sentiments so lax in defence of so immoral219 a young friend. I will endeavor to translate a portion of the passage, and I think that any ladies who may read these pages will agree with me in liking220 Cicero the better for what he said upon the occasion. He has been speaking of the changes which the manners of the world had undergone, not only in Rome but in Greece, since pleasure had been acknowledged even by philosophers to be necessary to life. "They who advocate one constant course of continual labor221 as the road to fame are left alone in their schools, deserted by their scholars. Nature herself has begotten222 for us allurements, seduced223 by which Virtue herself will occasionally become drowsy224. Nature herself leads the young into slippery paths, in which not to stumble now and again is hardly possible. Nature has produced for us a variety of pleasures, to which not only youth, but even middle-age, occasionally yields itself. If, therefore, you shall find one who can avert225 his eyes from all that is beautiful—who is charmed by no sweet smell, by no soft touch,37 by no rich flavor—who can turn a deaf ear to coaxing226 words—I indeed, and perhaps a few others, may think that the gods have been good to such a one; but I doubt whether the world at large will not think that the gods have made him a sorry fellow." There is very much more of it, delightfully227 said, and in the same spirit; but I have given enough to show the nature of the excuse for C?lius which has brought down on Cicero the wrath228 of the moralists.
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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pro
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| n.赞成，赞成的意见，赞成者 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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lavished
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| v.过分给予，滥施( lavish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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laudatory
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| adj.赞扬的 | |
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consul
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| n.领事；执政官 | |
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consuls
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| 领事( consul的名词复数 )； （古罗马共和国时期）执政官 （古罗马共和国及其军队的最高首长，同时共有两位，每年选举一次） | |
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consulship
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| 领事的职位或任期 | |
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orator
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| n.演说者，演讲者，雄辩家 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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abstain
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| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
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abstained
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| v.戒（尤指酒），戒除( abstain的过去式和过去分词 )；弃权（不投票） | |
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declamation
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| n. 雄辩，高调 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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bribery
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| n.贿络行为，行贿，受贿 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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shriek
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| v./n.尖叫，叫喊 | |
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erecting
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| v.使直立，竖起( erect的现在分词 )；建立 | |
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adorned
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| [计]被修饰的 | |
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beget
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| v.引起；产生 | |
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adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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exultant
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| adj.欢腾的，狂欢的，大喜的 | |
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oration
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| n.演说，致辞，叙述法 | |
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orations
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| n.（正式仪式中的）演说，演讲( oration的名词复数 ) | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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avenged
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| v.为…复仇，报…之仇( avenge的过去式和过去分词 )；为…报复 | |
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avenge
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| v.为...复仇，为...报仇 | |
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alluring
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| adj.吸引人的，迷人的 | |
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alienate
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| vt.使疏远，离间；转让(财产等) | |
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portents
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| n.预兆( portent的名词复数 )；征兆；怪事；奇物 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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46
allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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47
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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48
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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49
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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50
afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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51
artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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52
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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53
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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54
justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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55
bullies
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| n.欺凌弱小者, 开球 vt.恐吓, 威胁, 欺负 | |
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56
prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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57
detriment
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| n.损害；损害物，造成损害的根源 | |
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58
conspirator
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| n.阴谋者，谋叛者 | |
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59
conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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60
acceded
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| v.（正式）加入( accede的过去式和过去分词 )；答应；（通过财产的添附而）增加；开始任职 | |
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61
banishing
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的现在分词 ) | |
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62
rusty
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| adj.生锈的；锈色的；荒废了的 | |
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63
beseech
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| v.祈求，恳求 | |
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64
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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65
lauds
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| v.称赞，赞美( laud的第三人称单数 ) | |
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66
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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67
conspicuously
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| ad.明显地，惹人注目地 | |
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68
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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69
forum
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| n.论坛，讨论会 | |
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70
deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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71
consular
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| a.领事的 | |
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72
afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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73
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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74
splendor
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| n.光彩；壮丽，华丽；显赫，辉煌 | |
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75
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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76
utterances
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| n.发声( utterance的名词复数 )；说话方式；语调；言论 | |
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77
vitality
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| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
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78
alas
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|
| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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79
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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80
invective
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|
| n.痛骂，恶意抨击 | |
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81
eulogy
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|
| n.颂词；颂扬 | |
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82
demons
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| n.恶人( demon的名词复数 )；恶魔；精力过人的人；邪念 | |
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83
legacy
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| n.遗产，遗赠；先人(或过去)留下的东西 | |
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84
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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85
vigor
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| n.活力，精力，元气 | |
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86
fulsome
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|
| adj.可恶的，虚伪的，过分恭维的 | |
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87
touching
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|
| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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88
reimbursing
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|
| v.偿还，付还( reimburse的现在分词 ) | |
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89
razed
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| v.彻底摧毁，将…夷为平地( raze的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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90
villa
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| n.别墅，城郊小屋 | |
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91
villas
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| 别墅，公馆( villa的名词复数 )； （城郊）住宅 | |
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92
consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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93
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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94
consecration
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| n.供献，奉献，献祭仪式 | |
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95
restitution
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| n.赔偿；恢复原状 | |
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96
liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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97
thraldom
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| n.奴隶的身份，奴役，束缚 | |
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98
tenure
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| n.终身职位；任期；(土地)保有权，保有期 | |
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99
superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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100
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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101
prey
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|
| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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102
dedicated
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|
| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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103
breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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104
fortitude
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| n.坚忍不拔；刚毅 | |
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105
calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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106
frightful
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|
| adj.可怕的；讨厌的 | |
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107
desolated
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|
| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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108
repeal
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|
| n.废止，撤消；v.废止，撤消 | |
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109
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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110
surmises
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| v.臆测，推断( surmise的第三人称单数 )；揣测；猜想 | |
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111
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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112
plentiful
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|
| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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113
diligent
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| adj.勤勉的，勤奋的 | |
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114
rapacious
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| adj.贪婪的，强夺的 | |
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115
guise
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| n.外表，伪装的姿态 | |
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116
bellies
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|
| n.肚子( belly的名词复数 )；腹部；（物体的）圆形或凸起部份；腹部…形的 | |
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117
influx
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| n.流入，注入 | |
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118
scattered
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|
| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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119
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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120
unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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121
dominant
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|
| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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122
rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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123
bosoms
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| 胸部( bosom的名词复数 )； 胸怀； 女衣胸部（或胸襟）； 和爱护自己的人在一起的情形 | |
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124
mitigated
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|
| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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125
enjoining
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| v.命令( enjoin的现在分词 ) | |
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126
lieutenant
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| n.陆军中尉，海军上尉；代理官员，副职官员 | |
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127
justifying
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|
| 证明…有理( justify的现在分词 )； 为…辩护； 对…作出解释； 为…辩解（或辩护） | |
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128
infinitely
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|
| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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129
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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130
allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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131
orators
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| n.演说者，演讲家( orator的名词复数 ) | |
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132
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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133
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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134
decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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135
benefactor
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| n. 恩人，行善的人，捐助人 | |
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136
ratified
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| v.批准，签认（合约等）( ratify的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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137
impure
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| adj.不纯净的，不洁的；不道德的，下流的 | |
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138
patrimony
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| n.世袭财产，继承物 | |
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139
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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140
gratitude
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|
| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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141
allurements
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| n.诱惑( allurement的名词复数 )；吸引；诱惑物；有诱惑力的事物 | |
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142
tumult
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| n.喧哗；激动，混乱；吵闹 | |
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143
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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144
oligarchy
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| n.寡头政治 | |
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145
complacently
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|
| adv. 满足地, 自满地, 沾沾自喜地 | |
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146
estranging
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| v.使疏远（尤指家庭成员之间）( estrange的现在分词 ) | |
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147
confided
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| v.吐露（秘密，心事等）( confide的过去式和过去分词 )；（向某人）吐露（隐私、秘密等） | |
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148
professing
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| 声称( profess的现在分词 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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149
withdrawal
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| n.取回，提款；撤退，撤军；收回，撤销 | |
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150
nibble
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| n.轻咬，啃；v.一点点地咬，慢慢啃，吹毛求疵 | |
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151
morsel
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| n.一口，一点点 | |
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152
hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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153
prodigies
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| n.奇才，天才（尤指神童）( prodigy的名词复数 ) | |
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154
displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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155
superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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156
superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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157
scotch
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|
| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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158
subterranean
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|
| adj.地下的，地表下的 | |
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159
levied
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| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
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160
desecrated
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| 毁坏或亵渎( desecrate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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161
absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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162
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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163
perverse
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| adj.刚愎的；坚持错误的，行为反常的 | |
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164
stratagem
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| n.诡计，计谋 | |
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165
hoaxing
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| v.开玩笑骗某人，戏弄某人( hoax的现在分词 ) | |
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166
remonstrating
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| v.抗议( remonstrate的现在分词 )；告诫 | |
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167
grooms
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| n.新郎( groom的名词复数 )；马夫v.照料或梳洗（马等）( groom的第三人称单数 )；使做好准备；训练；（给动物）擦洗 | |
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168
procure
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|
| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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169
assent
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| v.批准，认可；n.批准，认可 | |
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170
assented
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| 同意，赞成( assent的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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171
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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172
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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173
acquitted
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| 宣判…无罪( acquit的过去式和过去分词 )； 使（自己）作出某种表现 | |
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174
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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175
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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prosecutor
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| n.起诉人；检察官，公诉人 | |
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177
forensic
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| adj.法庭的，雄辩的 | |
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178
tirade
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| n.冗长的攻击性演说 | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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aspiring
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| adj.有志气的；有抱负的；高耸的v.渴望；追求 | |
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reticence
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| n.沉默，含蓄 | |
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184
provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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185
plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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186
allotted
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| 分配，拨给，摊派( allot的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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retarded
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| a.智力迟钝的，智力发育迟缓的 | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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conspiracy
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| n.阴谋，密谋，共谋 | |
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196
shred
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| v.撕成碎片，变成碎片；n.碎布条，细片，些少 | |
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prerogative
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| n.特权 | |
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198
revelled
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| v.作乐( revel的过去式和过去分词 )；狂欢；着迷；陶醉 | |
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irrational
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| adj.无理性的，失去理性的 | |
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200
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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201
allege
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| vt.宣称，申述，主张，断言 | |
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202
habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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cosmopolitan
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| adj.世界性的，全世界的，四海为家的，全球的 | |
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stigmatize
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| v.污蔑，玷污 | |
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206
courteous
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| adj.彬彬有礼的，客气的 | |
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subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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compliance
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| n.顺从；服从；附和；屈从 | |
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oligarchical
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| adj.寡头政治的，主张寡头政治的 | |
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conceit
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| n.自负，自高自大 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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citizenship
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| n.市民权，公民权，国民的义务(身份) | |
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intimacy
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| n.熟悉，亲密，密切关系，亲昵的言行 | |
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apprenticed
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| 学徒，徒弟( apprentice的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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crumbs
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| int. (表示惊讶)哎呀 n. 碎屑 名词crumb的复数形式 | |
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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condescended
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| 屈尊，俯就( condescend的过去式和过去分词 )； 故意表示和蔼可亲 | |
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immoral
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| adj.不道德的，淫荡的，荒淫的，有伤风化的 | |
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liking
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| n.爱好；嗜好；喜欢 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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222
begotten
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| v.为…之生父( beget的过去分词 )；产生，引起 | |
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seduced
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| 诱奸( seduce的过去式和过去分词 )； 勾引； 诱使堕落； 使入迷 | |
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224
drowsy
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| adj.昏昏欲睡的，令人发困的 | |
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225
avert
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| v.防止，避免；转移(目光、注意力等) | |
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226
coaxing
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| v.哄，用好话劝说( coax的现在分词 )；巧言骗取；哄劝，劝诱；“锻炼”效应 | |
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227
delightfully
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| 大喜，欣然 | |
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228
wrath
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| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
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