—Trade: James Russell Lowell.
The first glove-makers2 in Europe, we may suppose—certainly the first, skilled in that art, to work together in brotherhoods—were the monks3 of the early Middle Ages. In common with many other old-established handicrafts, the glove trade is deeply indebted to the Church. On this point, William S. Beck, the leading English authority on glove lore4 of thirty-five years ago, has summed up the conditions most interestingly and clearly. He says:
“Muscular Christianity is no new doctrine5. Faith and works were once literally6 united in a secular7 sense. Before corruptions8 crept in, and while monastic establishments maintained the simple lines on which they had been founded, their inmates9 were the most skillful and industrious10 of artisans. Weaving, illuminating11, gardening, embroidery12, woodwork—these and many other occupations were practiced sedulously13 by the holy friars. The original idea of the founders14 of these institutions was to bring together a company of Christians15 who were workers. Benedict enjoins16 his followers17 to fight valiantly18 against idleness, the canker of truth.
“‘Therefore,’ he prescribes, ‘the brethren must be occupied in the labor19 of the hands, and again at certain times in divine study.’
53“The brethren not only practiced,” says Beck, “but taught. The monastery20 became as much the centre of industry as of intellect; and religion was made an active worker with commerce in furthering national interests. The efforts of the brethren often resulted in raising local manufactures to great excellence21, so that they obtained more than local celebrity22. To the monks of Bath, for instance, is attributed much of the fame which the stout23, woolen24 cloths of the west of England yet enjoy; and under their active auspices25, we are told, the manufacture was introduced, established and brought to perfection. In their commercial curriculum glove-making was certainly included, as well as the dressing26 of leather.”
As early as 790, as has been mentioned in a preceding chapter, Charlemagne granted to the abbots and monks of Sithin in ancient France unlimited27 right of hunting the deer for skins of which to make gloves, girdles and covers for books. These gloves, made in the monasteries28, assuredly were worn, not only by the higher orders of the clergy29, but by the king and his nobles. They may have been a direct means of revenue among the monks; in any case, they were a favor exchanged for the patronage30 and support of the feudal31 lords in maintaining monastic property.
Needless to say, gloves were one of the luxuries of early trade and barter32, and it was a late period before they became, to any extent, an article of common exchange. As gifts to kings and personages of high rank, they were borne from country to country, and 54thus, to a limited degree, were put into circulation. The Earl of Oxford33, on one occasion, curried34 favor with Queen Elizabeth by presenting Her Majesty35 with beautiful, perfumed gloves which he, personally, had brought to her from Italy. The Queen, we are told, was so vain of this particular pair of gloves that she had her portrait painted in them. Little by little, as the privilege of wearing gloves spread from sovereign to subject, their trade was popularized, and the glove market, in the modern sense, grew up in response to the increasing demand.
In France, glove-making as an industry, independent of the monasteries, was certainly well established in the twelfth century. In 1190 we find the Glovers of Paris organized under a settled code of statutes37 received from the king. Across the channel, gloves are first mentioned, as an incorporated trade, in Scotland, where the glovers formed a company called “The Glovers of Perth” during the reign36 of Robert III., who figures in Scott’s Fair Maid of Perth, and ruled between 1390 and 1406. This company was principally employed in making buck38 and doeskin gloves. Thence the trade spread over Scotland, but it did not long hold its importance. “Dundee” gloves enjoyed a picturesque39 fame; but Hull40 remarks, in 1834, that “they had little more than the term to recommend them.” Indeed, the greater part of them were made in Worcester, England, and were sewn cheaply, with cotton, instead of silk. A few gloves were also turned out in Montrose, Scotland; the leather for these, however, was sent from London.
55In London, the glove trade had existed for many centuries, and originally was carried on in connection with the making of leather doublets and breeches. Deer and sheep skins were used chiefly; but after the introduction of kid gloves into England from France, the former country began to make kid gloves also, under the name of “London town-made gloves,” and thus to follow the more fastidious fashions of the French. The glovers of London were incorporated in the fourteenth year of the reign of Charles I., who, on the sixth of September, 1638, granted them a charter, in which they were styled: “The Masters, Wardens41 and Fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Glovers of the City of London.” As early as 1464, however, they had received their coat-of-arms. Even so, the Paris glovers must be acceded42 priority in importance, as their statutes date from 1190. Moreover, it has justly been said that gloves “came over with the Conqueror,” and were really introduced into England from France. Previous to 1066, the glove produced by the Saxons was a rude and shapeless thing, while the Normans brought with them the clever prototype on which the future glove of England was destined43 to be modelled.
Very early in their history the English began to experience commercial rivalry44 with the French, and one of the first products to be strongly affected45, to England’s detriment46, was gloves. As far back as the reign of Edward IV., in 1462, we find the English glove trade protected by prohibitory laws. These laws, in later years, must have become obsolete47, as they do not appear ever to have 56been repealed48, and foreign gloves were imported into the country soon after the Reformation. In 1564, however, England forbade any gloves from abroad to enter her ports. Nothing was said about the raw materials being brought from other lands; but France saw fit to curtail49 the shipment of kid skins outside her boundaries, and thus the English were thrown entirely50 upon their own resources. French kid gloves—whose quality, after all, it has been impossible to equal in other countries—continued to be smuggled51 into the British realm to a greater extent, we may believe, than the authorities then realized. The titled people, accustomed to having the best of everything, infinitely52 preferred the French luxury to the homemade article; and so, it was secretly procured53. But, generally speaking, after 1564, the English manufactured their own gloves from native skins, and the trade increased and became prosperous.
On the occasion of the granting of the charter in 1638, certain abuses had crept into the industry, and it was to obviate54 these conditions that the document was demanded and granted by the king. It reads:
“Whereas, by an humble55 petition presented unto us by our loveing subjects, living in and about our Cities of London and Westminster, using the arte, trade or mistery of Glovers,
“We have been informed that their families are about four hundred in number, and upon them depending about three thousand of our subjects, who are much decayed and impoverished56 by reason of the great confluence57 of persons of the same arte, 57trade or mistery into our said Cities of London and Westminster, from all parts of our kingdome and dominion58 of Wales, that, for the most parte, have scarcely served any time thereunto, working of gloves in chambers59 and corners, and taking apprentices60 under them, many in number, as well women as men, that become burdensome to the parishes wherein they inhabit, and are a disordered multitude, living without proper government, and making naughtie and deceitful gloves: And that our subjects aforesaid, that lawfully61 and honestly use the said arte, trade or mistery, are, by these means, not only prejudiced at home, but the reputation the English had in foreign parts, where they were a great commoditie and held in goode esteeme, is much impaired62. And also, that by the engrossing63 of leather into a few men’s hands, our said subjects are forced to buye bad leather at excessive rates, to their further impoverishment64....” etc. ... etc.
In view of such abuses as these, the London Company was given very exclusive powers, one of which was “to search for and destroy bad or defective65 skins, leather or gloves.”
The name of the first Master of the Glovers’ Company has come down to us in certain parish registers of the seventeenth century, in which he is mentioned as “William Smart, of the parish of St. Giles, Cripplegate, Glover.” In his parish the trade seems to have been especially flourishing.
Perhaps the London industry labored66 under greater difficulties, on the whole, than 58glove-making elsewhere. It had constantly to contend against the secret importation of French gloves into the capital city, and also to maintain its superiority over the imitations of the country manufacturers; for, in England, as in France, competition between the various glove centres was intense. Many London manufacturers, because they could not make their ventures pay, actually became importers and dealers67 in French gloves—either underhandedly, or openly, as the laws of the land would permit. Invariably they found this greatly to their advantage, since the price of French gloves was low, and the manner in which the duty could be evaded68, at that date, ridiculously simple.
Despite the feelings and the best efforts of those Englishmen who sought to foster and strengthen the home glove trade, the prohibitory laws remained always more or less lax—chiefly because the aristocracy and gentry69 preferred the French glove, and, for the most part, were not interested in the welfare of English glovers and artisans—until, in 1825, the ban on imported gloves was officially removed. The effect upon France was electrical. The British ports were flung open to her at a time when Grenoble, Paris and her other glove cities were swinging back on the crest70 of the new wave of industrial prosperity and progress which had received its momentum71 in the days of the Empire—a period which witnessed the revival72 of much of the former elegance73 of France, so lately eclipsed by the Revolution. In 1832, the legal importation of French gloves into England was 1,516,663 59pairs. As many more, in that same year, we may believe, were also smuggled into the country by the old methods. To France—and particularly to Grenoble—the English change of policy was one of the greatest boons75 which could have befallen a commercially ambitious people.
To English glovers, on the contrary, the results were anything but fortunate. A brief survey of the vicissitudes76 of the English glove towns may serve to show how dearly the glove industry was forced to pay for the new national system of Free Trade.
In Worcester, close rival of London, the glove craft is known to have existed since 1571, and in 1661 the Glovers’ Company of that city was incorporated. Here an elaborate manufacture was carried on, including “Venetian” gloves, made in imitation of those originally imported from Venice. As long as French gloves were not freely admitted, the beaver77 gloves of Worcester also enjoyed great prosperity; but with the re-importation of the former, beaver gloves went out of fashion, and the Worcester makers turned their attention to alum leather gloves which were produced in large quantities until 1825.
The complete removal of the prohibitory regulations, however, was fatal to this last-named article, which could not hope to compete with the far finer product from abroad. From that date, the English manufacture rapidly decayed, despite every effort of the masters and the work people to readjust their difficulties. How hard Worcester itself was hit, is shown by a statement given by the Committee of Operative Glovers in 1832. It reads:
60“There are in Worcester 120 master manufacturers, who have been in the habit of making, upon an average, one hundred dozens of gloves each, per week, which would be 12,000 per week for the whole; but they are now making something under one-third of that number. By this means, about ￡3,000 (or $15,000) per week is taken out of circulation in wages alone; which money used immediately to find its way into the hands of the retail78 trader in the purchase of articles of consumption.”
In the year 1825, immediately before the introduction of French gloves, there were few, if any, work people idle in Worcester, and the trade was prosperous. On January 10, 1832, out of one thousand men, the state of employment stood as follows:
In full employ 113
Partial employ 465
Of the 465, many did not average more than two shillings, sixpence, per week. The number of children totally dependent upon these one thousand men was 1,748. The poorhouses were overrun, and large sums for relief were paid out of the public pocket. Worcester, the chief glove city outside London, continued to decline.
In Woodstock the Glovers never were incorporated, but the manufacture was pursued from a remote period. Some of the finest English craftsmen80 labored here to produce a very beautiful glove; and that they attained81 to a high degree of perfection is certified82 by the fact that the University of 61Oxford, in 1616, presented James I. with “very riche gloves” in Woodstock. Queen Elizabeth also received gloves from the Woodstock makers in one of her festal “progresses.” In those times only English deer, sheep and lamb skins were used in the Woodstock shops. Since 1825, however, and the introduction of French kid skins, most of their ancient prestige has been lost.
Hexham furnished a peculiar83 glove—so long-established that we may regard it as having descended84 unbrokenly from the old Saxon gluf—called the “Hexham tan glove,” made from native sheep skins. The gauntlets attached to suits of armor were made in the same style; and many centuries ago it was an important trade in that place. But even its modern substitute fell into disuse about 1830.
York “tans” were popular in the days of protection. Beaver gloves occupied 3,000 persons in Hereford, until the sudden industrial collapse85 of that town in 1825. Ludlow turned out 70,000 dozen pairs of gloves annually86, and employed one-fifth of its population in that trade, collecting the skins from Scotland. In 1832, “not six men,” we read, were employed in glove-making there. Kington was another glove centre which failed before the middle of the nineteenth century. The glove workmen of Leominster numbered 900 in 1825; and on the eve of legal re-importation its factories were among the busiest in the kingdom. In 1831, its shops were deserted87 by all but 163 artisans.
A community whose associations with gloves are particularly interesting, was 62Yeovil, where the craft was established as early as the middle of the sixteenth century, giving employment for hundreds of years to peasant workmen and workwomen living over an area of some twenty miles. At one period the number of its masters, cutters and sewers88 was 20,000, and about 300,000 dozens of gloves of all kinds were produced annually. An ancient folk song of the Yeovil glove-women has recently been revived by the Fuller sisters, to simple harp89 accompaniment, just as it used to be sung, as a “round” or “part song,” by the diligent90 sewers as they drew their triangular91 needles in and out of their work. It is very quaint92 and tuneful, marking the time of the motions in sewing; and its rhythm, no doubt, facilitated the speed and ease with which the women plied93 their task.
Yeovil was famous for its military gloves for many years. Later, a fine imitation of kid gloves was made there; but these were crushed out by the return of the genuine foreign product. An idyllic94 industrial community was transformed almost over night into a desperate and dangerous populace, demanding by force the means of bread-winning which so suddenly had been denied it. Hull tells us that to quell95 these disturbances96, two troops of dragoons were kept continually in the town, where, a few years before, “a horse-soldier would have been looked upon as a sort of centaur97 by the lower orders of the people.”
A territory, not yet mentioned, which was closely bound up with the prosperity of the glove trade in England, was Ireland. Limerick, Dublin and Cork98 formerly99 were 63noted glove cities. The “Limericks”—a glove named for its birthplace—were of exquisite101 texture102, and were greatly in favor among the aristocratic English for their property of rendering103 the hand of the wearer smooth and soft. These gloves were made of “morts” or “slinks,” the skin of the abortive104, or very young, calf105, lamb or kid. Some of them were so beautifully delicate that they could be enclosed in a walnut106 shell. “No glove ever exceeded the Limerick in beauty,” declares Hull. Skin collectors went all over Ireland, and the trade was a great boon74 to the peasantry. But after 1825, the skins were no longer worth the trouble of collecting, and a great resource of the country was lost.
To one who views these facts it must be apparent that England never was intended to compete with France in the skilled making of the finest gloves. She could content her people with the home product only by excluding all foreign gloves; and even then, the privileged, who could bribe107 the government, insisted upon the secret importation of gloves from France. To be sure, the wave of protection rose high in 1462, in 1675 and in 1744; but, in every event there came a reaction, as far as the complete prohibition108 of gloves was concerned. Instead of supplying her own colonies with the home product, England even imported gloves from France, stored them in her warehouses109, and then shipped them at an ad valorem duty to her East Indian possessions!
The truth of the matter was, French glove-makers early had won the first place in Europe. Struggle as she might, it is exceedingly 64doubtful whether her rival across the Channel ever could have equalled her prestige. In the heavier varieties of leather gloves, English makers did enjoy—and still do to-day—an enviable reputation; but here their fame stops. England had neither the inventive skill nor the natural climate to produce the perfect kid glove, for which France is so celebrated110.
In France itself, we already have traced in the course of other chapters, more or less definitely, the development of the glove market. Particularly we have followed the fortunes of the trade in Grenoble, as being, most distinctively111, the glove city of the world. We have seen Grenoble guarding her precious art from “the foreigner”; holding herself on the defensive112 against other French cities, of which, under the old laws and internal duties, she had no choice but to be jealous. We have noted100 how the Revocation113 ruined many of her neighbors, even while it stimulated114 competition beyond the confines of France. In the seventeenth century, Paris and Grenoble enjoyed the monopoly of the glove markets of Europe. During the eighteenth century, however, these cities began to cope with Germany, Italy, Austria, and even Russia, in glove-making. The vexed115 question of the exportation of skins was settled to the advantage of the manufacturers at home, and unnatural116 rivalry between the different French cities was smoothed away.
The Revolution saw the entire industry, apparently117, snuffed out. And yet, so deeply had the glove trade taken root in French soil 65that, at the first breath of the revival of culture and refined manners, under the patronage of the Empress Josephine, this ancient art again sprang into being; and, like a miracle, the resurrection of the glovers was complete. At this point the great clients of to-day appeared—the United States, reconstructing itself, and building up its commerce with the foremost marts of the world. The Americans demanded, among other things, the most beautiful gloves of Europe.
Grenoble, on recovering from the shock of the Revolution, the long, dark days of the Terror, found, to her chagrin118, that she had a formidable rival in Paris. Naturally, the capital city, the centre of the court, was the first place to feel the effects of the renaissance119 of glove-making. Paris swarmed120 with workers, and could get more sewers at lower wages than Grenoble contained within its gates. In 1810, however, the southern city began to reach out into the surrounding country for apprentices; and quickly the peasant people responded by the hundreds and thousands. Many of them flocked to the town, filling the places left destitute121 by the violent events of the last twenty years; and, for miles about, sewing was portioned out, to be done in the small villages and in isolated122 households scattered123 among the mountains. Grazing and goat rearing once more became a profitable occupation.
It proved a long, proud pull—but the glovers of Grenoble were not to be daunted124. At last that city’s ancient prestige was restored. The War of 1870, instead of being a set-back, was really a help; for the remoteness 66of Grenoble from the seat of war permitted her to continue working, and orders from England and America—which, ordinarily, might have sought other channels—she filled in her factories and home shops. In 1872, to be sure, Grenoble, and all the French glovers, suddenly found themselves up against tremendous, and totally unexpected, competition with Saxony, Austria, Luxembourg and Belgium. These countries had devised a means of placing on the market remarkably125 handsome lambskin gloves, which rivalled in appearance the fine French kid product and sold for far less. But a few years of obstinately126 insisting upon the high prices they always had exacted for their goods, soon taught the French manufacturers the necessity of finding a less expensive kid; and with the development of new mechanical inventions for cheaper cutting and sewing, Grenoble presently regained127 her firm footing.
If the seventeenth century must be considered little short of marvellous as regards glove-making in Grenoble—and it may be compared, indeed, to the first five years of a child’s life, in which he makes, proportionately, his most astonishing progress—the achievements of the industry in the nineteenth century, if possible, have been even greater. Apart from the facts of the vicissitudes the trade had had to face, the battles it had waged—and won—all the vast accoutrements of modern machinery128 and scientific appliances now come into play. Also, a great, inventive genius has arisen, destined to revolutionize the art of glove-making.
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hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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lore
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| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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corruptions
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| n.堕落( corruption的名词复数 )；腐化；腐败；贿赂 | |
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inmates
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| n.囚犯( inmate的名词复数 ) | |
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industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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illuminating
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| a.富于启发性的，有助阐明的 | |
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embroidery
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| n.绣花，刺绣；绣制品 | |
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sedulously
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| ad.孜孜不倦地 | |
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founders
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| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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enjoins
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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valiantly
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| adv.勇敢地，英勇地；雄赳赳 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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celebrity
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| n.名人，名流；著名，名声，名望 | |
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woolen
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| adj.羊毛(制)的；毛纺的 | |
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auspices
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| n.资助，赞助 | |
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dressing
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| n.(食物)调料；包扎伤口的用品，敷料 | |
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unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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patronage
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| n.赞助，支援，援助；光顾，捧场 | |
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feudal
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barter
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| n.物物交换，以货易货，实物交易 | |
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Oxford
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curried
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| adj.加了咖喱（或咖喱粉的），用咖哩粉调理的 | |
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majesty
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reign
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statutes
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| 成文法( statute的名词复数 )； 法令； 法规； 章程 | |
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buck
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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hull
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| n.船身；(果、实等的)外壳；vt.去(谷物等)壳 | |
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wardens
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| n.看守人( warden的名词复数 )；管理员；监察员；监察官 | |
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acceded
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| v.（正式）加入( accede的过去式和过去分词 )；答应；（通过财产的添附而）增加；开始任职 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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detriment
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| n.损害；损害物，造成损害的根源 | |
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obsolete
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| adj.已废弃的，过时的 | |
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repealed
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| 撤销，废除( repeal的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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curtail
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| vt.截短，缩短；削减 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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smuggled
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| 水货 | |
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52
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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53
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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54
obviate
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| v.除去，排除，避免，预防 | |
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55
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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impoverished
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| adj.穷困的，无力的，用尽了的v.使（某人）贫穷( impoverish的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某物）贫瘠或恶化 | |
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57
confluence
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| n.汇合，聚集 | |
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58
dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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59
chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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60
apprentices
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| 学徒，徒弟( apprentice的名词复数 ) | |
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61
lawfully
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| adv.守法地，合法地；合理地 | |
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62
impaired
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| adj.受损的；出毛病的；有（身体或智力）缺陷的v.损害，削弱( impair的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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63
engrossing
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| adj.使人全神贯注的，引人入胜的v.使全神贯注( engross的现在分词 ) | |
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64
impoverishment
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| n.贫穷，穷困；贫化 | |
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65
defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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labored
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| adj.吃力的，谨慎的v.努力争取(for)( labor的过去式和过去分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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67
dealers
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| n.商人( dealer的名词复数 )；贩毒者；毒品贩子；发牌者 | |
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68
evaded
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| 逃避( evade的过去式和过去分词 )； 避开； 回避； 想不出 | |
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69
gentry
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| n.绅士阶级，上层阶级 | |
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crest
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| n.顶点；饰章；羽冠；vt.达到顶点；vi.形成浪尖 | |
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71
momentum
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| n.动力，冲力，势头；动量 | |
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72
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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73
elegance
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| n.优雅；优美，雅致；精致，巧妙 | |
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boon
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| n.恩赐，恩物，恩惠 | |
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boons
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| n.恩惠( boon的名词复数 )；福利；非常有用的东西；益处 | |
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vicissitudes
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| n.变迁，世事变化；变迁兴衰( vicissitude的名词复数 )；盛衰兴废 | |
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77
beaver
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| n.海狸，河狸 | |
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78
retail
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| v./n.零售；adv.以零售价格 | |
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unemployed
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| adj.失业的，没有工作的；未动用的，闲置的 | |
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craftsmen
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| n. 技工 | |
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81
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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certified
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| a.经证明合格的；具有证明文件的 | |
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83
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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84
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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85
collapse
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| vi.累倒；昏倒；倒塌；塌陷 | |
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annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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sewers
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| n.阴沟，污水管，下水道( sewer的名词复数 ) | |
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harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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diligent
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| adj.勤勉的，勤奋的 | |
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triangular
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| adj.三角（形）的，三者间的 | |
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quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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plied
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| v.使用（工具）( ply的过去式和过去分词 )；经常供应（食物、饮料）；固定往来；经营生意 | |
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idyllic
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| adj.质朴宜人的，田园风光的 | |
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quell
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| v.压制，平息，减轻 | |
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disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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centaur
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| n.人首马身的怪物 | |
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98
cork
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| n.软木，软木塞 | |
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99
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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101
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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texture
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| n.(织物)质地；(材料)构造；结构；肌理 | |
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103
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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104
abortive
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| adj.不成功的，发育不全的 | |
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105
calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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106
walnut
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| n.胡桃，胡桃木，胡桃色，茶色 | |
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107
bribe
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| n.贿赂；v.向…行贿，买通 | |
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108
prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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109
warehouses
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| 仓库，货栈( warehouse的名词复数 ) | |
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110
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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111
distinctively
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| adv.特殊地，区别地 | |
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112
defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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113
revocation
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| n.废止，撤回 | |
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114
stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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115
vexed
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| adj.争论不休的；（指问题等）棘手的；争论不休的问题；烦恼的v.使烦恼( vex的过去式和过去分词 )；使苦恼；使生气；详细讨论 | |
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116
unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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117
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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118
chagrin
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| n.懊恼；气愤；委屈 | |
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119
renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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120
swarmed
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| 密集( swarm的过去式和过去分词 )； 云集； 成群地移动； 蜜蜂或其他飞行昆虫成群地飞来飞去 | |
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121
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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122
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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123
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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124
daunted
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| 使（某人）气馁，威吓( daunt的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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125
remarkably
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| ad.不同寻常地，相当地 | |
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126
obstinately
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| ad.固执地，顽固地 | |
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127
regained
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| 复得( regain的过去式和过去分词 )； 赢回； 重回； 复至某地 | |
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128
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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