IN treating of the Semitic race—a race that gave to humanity the Bible and the Koran, a race that founded Judaism, Christianity, and Islamism—its attitude will be better understood if we approach it through the tribes whose religions and humanitarian3 ideas were eventually to become the religions and humanitarian ideas of the civilized4 world.
The beginning of the nation of Israel was the result of the frequent immigration into Palestine of Semites who fused with the aborigines and formed the Ph?nician or Canaanitish people. From the time of Lugalzaggisi (about 4000 b. c.) there were successive Babylonian immigrations also, and from 1500 b. c. onward6 there were added to this mixture the Aramean tribes that had previously7 inhabited the highlands between the Mesopotamian Valley and the Mediterranean8 Sea. Originally pure139 nomads9, the Israelites after settling in Canaan became excellent agriculturists,192 and there developed the worship of Yahweh—“the worship of no other god contributing to the sum of humanity’s ethical10 ideas and spiritual conceptions a tithe11 of the value of that contributed by the worshippers of Yahweh.”193
These nomadic12 Semites when they settled in Palestine about 1000 b. c., after years of wandering, had many of the characteristics of a highly cultivated people but they also had the habits of the nomadic people that had originally come out of Arabia. Many too were the lapses13 into the ways of primitive people during the four hundred years of their wandering after their life in Goshen.194
If, as has been said, three generations without education would reduce the civilized peoples of today to savagery15, the proneness16 of the Semites to fall back into godless ways may be well understood; so too one may well understand the protests and lashings of the prophets who saw their people retrograding.
When the Israelites began to write their own history they were a highly developed race in which there were few traces of early savagery, but the habit of sacrificing the firstling was a remnant of earlier economic stress that had passed into their religion. In order to understand the Israelite140 branch of the Semitic race and how it was possible for it to produce, on the one hand, the humanitarian ideas that rule the world today, when at practically the same time its leaders were protesting against savage14 sacrifices, but a step removed from cannibalism, one can do no better than to quote the eloquent17 and learned Chwolson, though his theory of the innate18 quality of a race is open to serious objections.
Commenting on the fundamental causes of the peculiarities19 of a people, one of which he says is the nature of “its heart and nervous system,” he thus describes the disposition20 of the Israelites195:
“In reference to the disposition (Gemueth) and organization of the nervous system: the Semite possesses a deep, easily excitable disposition, and is capable of mighty21 feelings; he is, therefore, lively, mobile, easily excited, passionate22, quickly enthused for an idea, active and enterprising, flexible and adapting, easily finding himself at home in strange relations and circumstances, accommodating himself to them without difficulty, without, however, allowing of being absorbed by them.”
While, therefore, some of the Israelites developed in humanitarianism23 and poetry and religion, under the favourable24 conditions in Canaan, others, under various other influences, reverted25 to former practices. Among these practices was that of sacrificing the first-born child.
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To understand better how the people who gave to the world the Child’s Friend retained so late the habit of sacrificing children, the scope of the custom must be understood.
The sacrifice of human beings to the gods, says Grimm,196 rested on the supposition that human food was agreeable to the gods and not until man had advanced did the idea come that substitutes might be offered. In the cannibalistic stage of development these sacrifices were eaten by the sacrificers, thus establishing a connecting link between the humans and the invisible gods whom they hoped to appease26.
The whole theory of sacrifice will be better understood if we grasp the fact that it was born of fear. When a nation sacrificed out of gratitude27 or in apparent joyous28 exultation29, it was in memory of days when they suffered and their gratitude was as much a propitiation as anything else. Born in fear, the next step in the development of sacrifice was to economize30 “without impairing31 efficiency.”197 The result of this second effort is seen in ingenious devices by which the burden on the worshipper is lightened by his substituting something less valuable than what he is supposed to offer, or what the god is supposed to want, but which the worshipper believes will be acceptable. These substitutions are always made when the forces of nature are treating man more kindly32 and when his142 attitude toward his gods is less fearful, for the mind of man in time of plenty and security has always presupposed that time to be when the gods are more or less drowsy33.
With some primitive peoples, the sacrifice began as an offering of a meal to the ancestor who had gone before, but as with all primitive peoples the determining factor in religion is fear rather than affection, it became a method of soliciting34 favours for the future, and such were the sacrifices among the Greeks and Romans, the Hebrews, the Aryans, and the Chinese.198
Primitive man, when unwelcome children were born, found easy excuse for getting rid of them by offering them as a sacrifice to the impatient and fearful gods. That at some stage in the development of the parental35 instinct the excuse that the gods must be propitiated36 was needed to quiet the awakening37 mother love, is more than likely. And surely, no more crushing answer could there be to the request to allow a child to live than that the gods were angry and had to be propitiated.
Another reason given for offering children was that, having just come from the other world, they were nearer to the gods and freer of sin and therefore more acceptable. Such reasoning argues a stage far in advance of the cannibal who ate his own children under the idea that he was propitiating38 an angry god. “The institutions of man de143velop with considerable uniformity all over the globe, although as races advance, they naturally diverge39 more or less under the influence of different climate, food, and other conditions.”199 Cannibalism was one of the earliest stages to which we are able to trace many of the customs even of today, and the idea of sacrifice of children undoubtedly40 had its origin in primitive cannibalistic feasts, “ceremonies that were softened41 by the rise of civilization as well as migration5 to more fertile land and an abundance of food sufficient to make the substitution of an animal for a human possible.”200
Among primitive people the sacrifice of children is common. In most cases there is some specific result that is desired when the child is sacrificed. In the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific, the sacrifice of the child is called nawgia and strangling is the method adopted, whenever it is found that the ordinary cures do not affect some sick parent. It is said that the natives watch the ceremony of strangling with much pity but that they feel it is better “to sacrifice a child who is at present of no use to society, and perhaps may not otherwise live to be,” than to allow a sick chief to die.201 On one occasion when the gods had been offended the native priests decreed that the child of Toobo Toa, the chief, should be sacrificed, “on such144 occasions the child of a male chief being always chosen as being worthier42 than others,” and a two-year-old child was strangled against the protests of its mother, who tried to conceal43 it.202
That the health of the Ynca also led to sacrifice of children is stated by Acosta:
“They vsed in Peru to sacrifice yong children of foure or six yeares old vnto tenne; and the greatest parte of these sacrifices were for the affaires that did import the Ynca, as in sickness for his health, and when he went to the warres for victory, or when they gave the wreathe to their new Ynca, which is the marke of a King, as heere the Scepter and the Crowne be. In this solemnitie they sacrificed the number of two hundred children, from foure to tenne yeares of age, which was a cruell and inhumane spectacle. The manner of the sacrifice was to drowne them and bury them with certaine representations and ceremonies; sometimes they cutte off their heads, annointing themselves with the blood from one eare to another.”203
Acosta also declared that when an ordinary man was sick and believed he would die, his own son was sacrificed to the Sun or to Virachoca.
Francisco de Jerez says that the Peruvian Indians sacrificed their own children and tinted44 the doors of their temples and the faces of their idols45 with the blood.
THE INCAS OFFERING A HUMAN SACRIFICE TO THEIR CHIEF
(FROM “MOEURS DES SAUVAGES AMERIQUAINS,” BY P. LAFITAU, PARIS, 1724)
(FROM “MOEURS DES SAUVAGES AMERIQUAINS,” BY P. LAFITAU, PARIS, 1724)
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“They sacrifice each month their own children, and with their blood smear48 the faces of the idols and the doors of the temples, and sprinkle the blood over the graves of their dead.”204
It is certain, according to the story of Sieur le Moyne de Mourgues, that “in that part of Florida which is near Virginia,—and where the French are under the leadership of Sieur le Laudonnière—the people of this country regard their chiefs as sons of the Sun and, for this reason, they pay them divine honours, sacrificing to them their first-born.”205
“Their custom is,” according to Le Moyne, “to offer up the first-born son to the chief. When the day for the sacrifice is notified to the chief, he proceeds to a place set apart for the purpose, where there is a bench for him on which he takes his seat. In the middle of the area before him is a wooden stump50 two feet high and as many thick, before which a mother sits on her heels, her face covered in her hands, lamenting51 the loss of her child. The principal one of her female relatives or friends now offers the child to the chief in worship, after which the women who have accompanied the mother form a circle and dance around with demonstrations53 of joy, but without joining hands.146 She who holds the child goes and dances in the middle, singing some praises to the chief. Meanwhile, six Indians, chosen for the purpose, take their stand in a certain place in the open area; and midway among them the sacrificing officer, who is decorated with a sort of magnificence, and holds a club. The ceremony being through, the sacrificer takes the child and slays54 it in honour of the chief, before them all, upon the wooden stump. This offering was, on one occasion, performed in our presence.”206
“It was the Custom in Peru, to sacrifice Children from four to ten Years of Age, which was chiefly done when the Inga was sick, or going to War, to pray for Victory, and at the Coronation of those Princes they sacrific’d two hundred Children. Sometimes they strangl’d, and bury’d them, and other times they cut their Throats, and the Priests besmear’d themselves with the Blood from Ear to Ear, which was the Formality of the Sacrifice. Nor were the Virgins55 (Mamaconas) of the Temple exempt56 from being sacrific’d and, when any Person of Note was sick, and the Priest said he must die, they sacrific’d his son, desiring the Idol46 to be satisfied with him, and not take away his Father’s life. The Ceremonies us’d at this Sacrifice were strange, for they behav’d themselves like mad Men. They believ’d that all Calamities147 were occasion’d by Sin, and that Sacrifices were the Remedy.”207
Further evidence of the attitude of the Indians is given by the first secretary of the Colony of Virginia Brittania, who asserted that the Indians in Florida sacrificed the first-born male child. According to this writer, their Quiyoughquisocks, or prophets to the Indians, persuaded the warriors57 to resist the settlements of the white people because their Okeus, who was god of the tribe, would not be appeased58 by the sacrifice of a thousand children if they permitted the white people, who despised their religion, to dwell among them.208
In parts of New South Wales209 such as Bathurst, Goulburn, the Lachlan, or MacQuarie, the first-born of every lubra was eaten by the tribe as a part of the religious ceremony. Here, too, it was the male infant that was more desirable as a sacrifice, the female infants being sometimes allowed to live. In this connection, it is interesting to note that where children are killed without any other excuse than that they are a drain on the resources of their parents, it is the female children who are slaughtered59. When, however, there is a so-called religious reason for the infanticide, it is the male child that suffers.
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In India, as we shall see, children were frankly60 killed for economic reasons; but here too there are evidences of the sacrifice theory. Up to the beginning of the present century, the custom of offering a first-born child to the Ganges was common. A custom akin61 to this was that of the Ganga Jatra, the murder of sick relatives on the banks of the sacred river. As late as 1812, a mother and sister burned a leper at Katwa near Calcutta, their excuse being that by so doing he would be given a pure body in the next world.
Women, too, who had been long barren dedicated62 their first child, if one were given them, to Omkar Mandharta.210
Bathing in blood, especially the blood of children, in Northern India was regarded as a powerful remedy for disease. In 1870, a Mussulman butcher, losing his child, was told by a Hindu conjurer that in order to make the next child healthy, he should wash his wife in the blood of a boy, with the result that a child was murdered. At Muzaffar Nagar a child was killed and the blood drunk by a barren woman.211
In the city of Saugor in India, human sacrifices were offered up in the year 1800, when they were stopped by the local governor, Assa Sahib, although the Brahmin priests objected strenuously63 to the innovation. Outside the city, there was a spot where the young men sacrificed themselves149 in order to fulfil the vows64 of their mothers. The belief was that when a woman was without a child, she could overcome barrenness by promising66 her first-born, if a male, to the god of destruction, Mahadea. If a boy was born after this vow65, she concealed67 from him the vow until he attained68 the age of puberty, when it was his duty to obey his mother’s call and throw himself, at the annual fair on the sandstone hills, from a perpendicular69 height of four or five hundred feet and be dashed to pieces upon the rocks below.212
Among the Banjarilu, a caste of travelling traders noted70 in “Bhadrachellam and Rekapalli Taluquas,”213 the custom in former years was, before starting off on a business journey, to procure71 a little child and bury it in the ground up to its shoulders. Then the traders would drive their loaded bullocks over the victim and in proportion as the bullocks “thoroughly trampled72 the child to death” was their belief in a successful journey increased. Probably very little credence73 can be given to their assertions that they have completely left off such cruelties.
The Chinese philosopher, Mih Tsze, who lived about the fourth century before Christ, wrote that there existed at one time in China a state called Kai-muh, where it was the custom to kill and de150vour the eldest74 brother as an offering to the gods.214
We come now to the results of recent excavations75 in Palestine.
There were discovered at Gezer, the bodies of adults that had been sacrificed at foundation rites76 and deposited with the corner-stones much as moderns deposit mementoes and newspapers. Mr. MacAlister, who had charge of the excavations at Gezer, says, however, that adult or adolescent victims were rare in comparison with the number of infants or very young children whose remains77 were found under the corners of houses. Such deposits were found in all the Semitic strata78 but were very rare in the Hellenistic stratum79, showing that the practice died down when the Greeks came into control of the land. The children sacrificed at these foundation rites were deposited in the same manner as those found at the messobath or high place, where there was discovered a cemetery80 of jar-buried infants that went to show how general was the practice of sacrificing their new-born infants among the Canaanites.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS FOUND IN A CHILD’S GRAVE, AT TELL TA’ANNEK
(REPRODUCED FROM “DENKSCHRIFTEN DER KAISERLICHEN AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFT”)
“That these sacrificed infants were the first-born, devoted81 in the Temple, is indicated by the fact that none were over a week old. This seems to show that the sacrifices were not offered under stress or any special calamity82, or at the rites attaching to any special season of the year. The special circumstance which led to the selection of 151these infants must have been something inherent in the victims themselves, which devoted them to sacrifice from the moment of their birth. Among various races, various circumstances are regarded as sufficient reason for infanticide—deformity, the birth of twins, etc.; but among the Semites the one cause most likely to have been effective was primogeniture.”215
In the vessels83 in which the infants were placed, were found by the excavators smaller vessels which were probably food vessels with a viaticum for the victim.
At Ta’Annek216 after the discoveries at Gezer, a cemetery containing some twenty infants, also buried in jars, was discovered about a rock altar, the age of the infants that had been sacrificed having been as much as five years. At Megiddo217 underneath84 a corner of a temple, there were found four jars with the bones of children and near them smaller jars and a bowl, which undoubtedly contained the food that children were supposed to need in the other world. Professor Sellin suggests that the bones found at Tell Ta’Annek may have been the bones of children that had died too young to be buried in the family sepulchres, but the burden of evidence suggests a different explanation. Here, then, we have a double152 reason for the sacrifice of the children, for the foundation sacrifices were—one might almost say are, so recently have there been instances of the practice—of a different order from the sacrifice of the first-born.
On these foundation sacrifices, Dr. Driver has made some interesting notes. We are all familiar with our own foundation ceremonies, which are really nothing more or less than a modification85 of these primitive ceremonies that consisted almost entirely86 of the sacrifice of a human being and in many instances of an infant, inasmuch as the infant, having just come into the world, was purer and nearer to god and therefore more acceptable. Traces of the custom of sacrificing a human life in order that some destructive god or demon52 might be propitiated and the lives of those about to occupy the building thereby87 made safer are found in India, New Zealand, China, Japan, Mexico, Germany, and Denmark.
The extent of these foundation sacrifices had been revealed by Dr. Trumbull in his Threshold Covenant88, all going to show that different branches of the human family, though far removed, mounted much the same steps in their endeavour to achieve the truth about the world in which they lived.
Among the Danes, when the fortifications were first being built around Copenhagen many years ago, the walls, as they were built, kept sinking in, and it did not seem possible that they would ever stand firmly.
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“The workmen finally took a little girl, placed her at a table, and gave her play toys and sweetmeats. Then, as she sat there enjoying herself, the masons built an arch over her and in this way the walls were made solid.”218
A similar story is told219 of a castle of Liebenstein. It was made fast and impregnable by buying a child from its mother and walling it in.
Slavensk, a Slavonic town on the Danube, had been devastated89 by the plague and when it was built anew the wise men of the town agreed that there must be a human victim. Messengers were sent out before sunrise to seize the first living creature they met. The victim was a child and it was buried alive under the foundation stone of the citadel90, and from that time on, a citadel was called a Dyetinet, from Dyetina220, a child.
In Africa in Galam, Tylor says221 that a boy and a girl were buried alive before the gate of the city in order to make it impregnable. In other places, such as Great Bassam and Yarriba, such sacrifices were usual even when the foundation was only that of a house.
In some places, such as among the Tantis of Africa, the sacrifice was made at every new moon. In Sargos, a girl was offered up that there might be good crops. In Bonny, they sacrificed every year154 a beautiful virgin49 to Juju that the evil spirits might be kept away.
“The connection between cannibalism and human sacrifice,” says Dr. Waitz, “is manifest enough in the festivals of Dahomey.”222
There were two principal and solemn sacrifices among the Pipiles, a Maya people in Central America—one at the commencement of summer and one at the beginning of winter. Little boys of ten and twelve years of age were the victims, and their blood was sprinkled in the direction of the four cardinal91 points.223
Among the Milanau Dyaks when the largest house was being erected92, a deep hole was dug and a slave girl was placed in it. An enormous timber was then allowed to descend93 on her and crush her to death.224
As late as 1843 in Germany, when a new bridge was being built at Halle, the common people fancied that a child was wanted to be walled into the foundations. According to Grimm, the tower called the Reichenfels Castle was built on a live child and a projecting stone marks the place. If that were pulled out, the wall, it is said, would tumble down.225
According to a Servian legend, three hundred masons laboured for three years at the foundation155 stones of Scutari, but what they built by day, the Vila tore down at night. At last she made known to the kings that the place would never be finished until two brothers or sisters “of like name” were built into the foundations. Nowhere could such be found. Then the Vila required that one of the wives of the kings should be walled up in the ground. The next day the consort94 of the youngest king, never dreaming of such a decree, brought out some dinner to the workmen; thereupon the three hundred masons dropped their stones around her and began to wall her in. At her entreaty95, they left a small opening and there she continued to suckle her babe who was held up to her once a day.226
The foundation sacrifice is well known in India. At Madras, it has long been a tradition that when the fort was first built a girl was built into it to render it impregnable.227 A Raja was once building a bridge over the river Jargo at Chunar and when it fell down several times, he was advised to sacrifice a Brahman girl to the local deity96. She has now become the Mari or ghost of the place and is regularly worshipped in time of trouble. In Kumaun, there are professional kidnappers97 known as Doqhutiya, or two-legged beasts of prey98, who go about capturing boys that they may be used in foundation sacrifices.
Up to 1867, when a house was built among the Tlinkits tribe in Alaska, the relatives and friends156 of the chief or wealthy man were invited to appear on the spot that he had chosen for the site. Addressing them at great length, he referred with pride to the various deeds of his ancestors and promised to so conduct himself as to shed more lustre99 on the family name. The space for the house was then cleared, a spot for the fireplace designated, and four holes dug wherein the corner posts were to be set. A slave, or the descendant of a slave who had been captured in war, was then blind-folded and compelled to lie down face uppermost on the spot selected for the fireplace. A sapling was then cut, laid across the throat of the slave, and, at a given signal, the two nearest relatives of the house sat upon the respective ends of the sapling, thereby choking the wretch100 to death.
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1
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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cannibalism
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| n.同类相食；吃人肉 | |
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humanitarian
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| n.人道主义者，博爱者，基督凡人论者 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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migration
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| n.迁移，移居，（鸟类等的）迁徙 | |
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onward
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| adj.向前的，前进的；adv.向前，前进，在先 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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nomads
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| n.游牧部落的一员( nomad的名词复数 )；流浪者；游牧生活；流浪生活 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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tithe
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| n.十分之一税；v.课什一税，缴什一税 | |
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nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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lapses
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| n.失误，过失( lapse的名词复数 )；小毛病；行为失检；偏离正道v.退步( lapse的第三人称单数 )；陷入；倒退；丧失 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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savagery
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| n.野性 | |
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proneness
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| n.俯伏，倾向 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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humanitarianism
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| n.博爱主义；人道主义；基督凡人论 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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reverted
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| 恢复( revert的过去式和过去分词 )； 重提； 回到…上； 归还 | |
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appease
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| v.安抚，缓和，平息，满足 | |
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gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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joyous
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| adj.充满快乐的；令人高兴的 | |
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exultation
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| n.狂喜，得意 | |
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economize
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| v.节约，节省 | |
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impairing
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| v.损害，削弱( impair的现在分词 ) | |
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kindly
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| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
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drowsy
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| adj.昏昏欲睡的，令人发困的 | |
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soliciting
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| v.恳求( solicit的现在分词 )；（指娼妇）拉客；索求；征求 | |
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parental
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| adj.父母的；父的；母的 | |
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propitiated
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| v.劝解，抚慰，使息怒( propitiate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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propitiating
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| v.劝解，抚慰，使息怒( propitiate的现在分词 ) | |
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diverge
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| v.分叉，分歧，离题，使...岔开，使转向 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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softened
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| （使）变软( soften的过去式和过去分词 )； 缓解打击； 缓和； 安慰 | |
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worthier
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| 应得某事物( worthy的比较级 )； 值得做某事； 可尊敬的； 有（某人或事物）的典型特征 | |
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conceal
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，隐蔽 | |
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tinted
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| adj. 带色彩的 动词tint的过去式和过去分词 | |
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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idol
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| n.偶像，红人，宠儿 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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smear
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| v.涂抹；诽谤，玷污；n.污点；诽谤，污蔑 | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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stump
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| n.残株，烟蒂，讲演台；v.砍断，蹒跚而走 | |
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lamenting
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| adj.悲伤的，悲哀的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的现在分词 ) | |
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demon
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| n.魔鬼，恶魔 | |
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demonstrations
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| 证明( demonstration的名词复数 )； 表明； 表达； 游行示威 | |
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slays
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的第三人称单数 ) | |
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virgins
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| 处女，童男( virgin的名词复数 )； 童贞玛利亚（耶稣之母） | |
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exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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appeased
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| 安抚，抚慰( appease的过去式和过去分词 )； 绥靖（满足另一国的要求以避免战争） | |
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slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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frankly
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| adv.坦白地，直率地；坦率地说 | |
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akin
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| adj.同族的，类似的 | |
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dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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strenuously
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| adv.奋发地，费力地 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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vow
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| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
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promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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trampled
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| 踩( trample的过去式和过去分词 )； 践踏； 无视； 侵犯 | |
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credence
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| n.信用，祭器台，供桌，凭证 | |
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eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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excavations
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| n.挖掘( excavation的名词复数 )；开凿；开凿的洞穴（或山路等）；（发掘出来的）古迹 | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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strata
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| n.地层（复数）；社会阶层 | |
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stratum
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| n.地层，社会阶层 | |
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cemetery
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| n.坟墓，墓地，坟场 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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calamity
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| n.灾害，祸患，不幸事件 | |
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vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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modification
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| n.修改，改进，缓和，减轻 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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covenant
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| n.盟约，契约；v.订盟约 | |
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devastated
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| v.彻底破坏( devastate的过去式和过去分词)；摧毁；毁灭；在感情上（精神上、财务上等）压垮adj.毁坏的；极为震惊的 | |
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citadel
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| n.城堡；堡垒；避难所 | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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92
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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consort
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| v.相伴；结交 | |
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entreaty
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| n.恳求，哀求 | |
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96
deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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kidnappers
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| n.拐子，绑匪( kidnapper的名词复数 ) | |
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98
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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lustre
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| n.光亮，光泽；荣誉 | |
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wretch
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| n.可怜的人，不幸的人；卑鄙的人 | |
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