In the eleven years that separated the Declaration of the Independence of the United States from the completion of that act in the ordination1 of our written Constitution, the great minds of America were bent2 upon the study of the principles of government that were essential to the preservation3 of the liberties which had been won at great cost and with heroic labors4 and sacrifices. Their studies were conducted in view of the imperfections that experience had developed in the government of the Confederation, and they were, therefore, practical and thorough.
When the Constitution was thus perfected and established, a new form of government was created, but it was neither speculative5 nor experimental as to the principles on which it was based. If they were true principles, as they were, the government founded upon them was destined6 to a life and an influence that would continue while the liberties it was intended to preserve should be valued by the human family. Those liberties had been wrung7 from reluctant monarchs8 in many contests, in many countries, and were grouped into creeds9 and established in ordinances10 sealed with blood, in many great struggles of the people. They were not new to the people. They were consecrated11 theories, but no government had been previously12 established for the great purpose of their preservation and enforcement. That which was experimental in our plan of government was the question whether democratic rule could be so organized and conducted that it would not degenerate13 into license14 and result in the tyranny of absolutism, without saving to the people the power so often found necessary of repressing or destroying their enemy, when he was found in the person of a single despot.
When, in 1831, Alexis de Tocqueville came to study Democracy in America, the trial of nearly a half-century of the working of our system had been made, and it had been proved, by many crucial tests, to be a government of "liberty regulated by law," with such results in the development of strength, in population, wealth, and military and commercial power, as no age had ever witnessed.
[See Alexis De Tocqueville]
De Tocqueville had a special inquiry15 to prosecute16, in his visit to America, in which his generous and faithful soul and the powers of his great intellect were engaged in the patriotic17 effort to secure to the people of France the blessings18 that Democracy in America had ordained19 and established throughout nearly the entire Western Hemisphere. He had read the story of the French Revolution, much of which had been recently written in the blood of men and women of great distinction who were his progenitors20; and had witnessed the agitations21 and terrors of the Restoration and of the Second Republic, fruitful in crime and sacrifice, and barren of any good to mankind.
He had just witnessed the spread of republican government through all the vast continental22 possessions of Spain in America, and the loss of her great colonies. He had seen that these revolutions were accomplished23 almost without the shedding of blood, and he was filled with anxiety to learn the causes that had placed republican government, in France, in such contrast with Democracy in America.
De Tocqueville was scarcely thirty years old when he began his studies of Democracy in America. It was a bold effort for one who had no special training in government, or in the study of political economy, but he had the example of Lafayette in establishing the military foundation of these liberties, and of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and Hamilton, all of whom were young men, in building upon the Independence of the United States that wisest and best plan of general government that was ever devised for a free people.
He found that the American people, through their chosen representatives who were instructed by their wisdom and experience and were supported by their virtues—cultivated, purified and ennobled by self-reliance and the love of God—had matured, in the excellent wisdom of their counsels, a new plan of government, which embraced every security for their liberties and equal rights and privileges to all in the pursuit of happiness. He came as an honest and impartial24 student and his great commentary, like those of Paul, was written for the benefit of all nations and people and in vindication25 of truths that will stand for their deliverance from monarchical26 rule, while time shall last.
A French aristocrat27 of the purest strain of blood and of the most honorable lineage, whose family influence was coveted28 by crowned heads; who had no quarrel with the rulers of the nation, and was secure against want by his inherited estates; was moved by the agitations that compelled France to attempt to grasp suddenly the liberties and happiness we had gained in our revolution and, by his devout29 love of France, to search out and subject to the test of reason the basic principles of free government that had been embodied30 in our Constitution. This was the mission of De Tocqueville, and no mission was ever more honorably or justly conducted, or concluded with greater eclat31, or better results for the welfare of mankind.
His researches were logical and exhaustive. They included every phase of every question that then seemed to be apposite to the great inquiry he was making.
The judgment32 of all who have studied his commentaries seems to have been unanimous, that his talents and learning were fully33 equal to his task. He began with the physical geography of this country, and examined the characteristics of the people, of all races and conditions, their social and religious sentiments, their education and tastes; their industries, their commerce, their local governments, their passions and prejudices, and their ethics34 and literature; leaving nothing unnoticed that might afford an argument to prove that our plan and form of government was or was not adapted especially to a peculiar35 people, or that it would be impracticable in any different country, or among any different people.
The pride and comfort that the American people enjoy in the great commentaries of De Tocqueville are far removed from the selfish adulation that comes from a great and singular success. It is the consciousness of victory over a false theory of government which has afflicted36 mankind for many ages, that gives joy to the true American, as it did to De Tocqueville in his great triumph.
When De Tocqueville wrote, we had lived less than fifty years under our Constitution. In that time no great national commotion37 had occurred that tested its strength, or its power of resistance to internal strife38, such as had converted his beloved France into fields of slaughter39 torn by tempests of wrath40.
He had a strong conviction that no government could be ordained that could resist these internal forces, when, they are directed to its destruction by bad men, or unreasoning mobs, and many then believed, as some yet believe, that our government is unequal to such pressure, when the assault is thoroughly41 desperate.
Had De Tocqueville lived to examine the history of the United States from 1860 to 1870, his misgivings42 as to this power of self-preservation would, probably, have been cleared off. He would have seen that, at the end of the most destructive civil war that ever occurred, when animosities of the bitterest sort had banished43 all good feeling from the hearts of our people, the States of the American union, still in complete organization and equipped with all their official entourage, aligned44 themselves in their places and took up the powers and duties of local government in perfect order and without embarrassment45. This would have dispelled46 his apprehensions47, if he had any, about the power of the United States to withstand the severest shocks of civil war. Could he have traced the further course of events until they open the portals of the twentieth century, he would have cast away his fears of our ability to restore peace, order, and prosperity, in the face of any difficulties, and would have rejoiced to find in the Constitution of the United States the remedy that is provided for the healing of the nation.
De Tocqueville examined, with the care that is worthy48 the importance of the subject, the nature and value of the system of "local self-government," as we style this most important feature of our plan, and (as has often happened) when this or any subject has become a matter of anxious concern, his treatment of the questions is found to have been masterly and his preconceptions almost prophetic.
We are frequently indebted to him for able expositions and true doctrines49 relating to subjects that have slumbered50 in the minds of the people until they were suddenly forced on our attention by unexpected events.
In his introductory chapter, M. De Tocqueville says: "Amongst the novel objects that attracted my attention during my stay in the United States, nothing struck me more forcibly than the general equality of conditions." He referred, doubtless, to social and political conditions among the people of the white race, who are described as "We, the people," in the opening sentence of the Constitution. The last three amendments51 of the Constitution have so changed this, that those who were then negro slaves are clothed with the rights of citizenship52, including the right of suffrage53. This was a political party movement, intended to be radical54 and revolutionary, but it will, ultimately, react because it has not the sanction of public opinion.
If M. De Tocqueville could now search for a law that would negative this provision in its effect upon social equality, he would fail to find it. But he would find it in the unwritten law of the natural aversion of the races. He would find it in public opinion, which is the vital force in every law in a free government. This is a subject that our Constitution failed to regulate, because it was not contemplated55 by its authors. It is a question that will settle itself, without serious difficulty. The equality in the suffrage, thus guaranteed to the negro race, alone—for it was not intended to include other colored races—creates a new phase of political conditions that M. De Tocqueville could not foresee. Yet, in his commendation of the local town and county governments, he applauds and sustains that elementary feature of our political organization which, in the end, will render harmless this wide departure from the original plan and purpose of American Democracy. "Local Self-Government," independent of general control, except for general purposes, is the root and origin of all free republican government, and is the antagonist56 of all great political combinations that threaten the rights of minorities. It is the public opinion formed in the independent expressions of towns and other small civil districts that is the real conservatism of free government. It is equally the enemy of that dangerous evil, the corruption58 of the ballot59-box, from which it is now apprehended60 that one of our greatest troubles is to arise.
The voter is selected, under our laws, because he has certain physical qualifications—age and sex. His disqualifications, when any are imposed, relate to his education or property, and to the fact that he has not been convicted of crime. Of all men he should be most directly amenable61 to public opinion.
The test of moral character and devotion to the duties of good citizenship are ignored in the laws, because the courts can seldom deal with such questions in a uniform and satisfactory way, under rules that apply alike to all. Thus the voter, selected by law to represent himself and four other non-voting citizens, is often a person who is unfit for any public duty or trust. In a town government, having a small area of jurisdiction62, where the voice of the majority of qualified63 voters is conclusive64, the fitness of the person who is to exercise that high representative privilege can be determined65 by his neighbors and acquaintances, and, in the great majority of cases, it will be decided66 honestly and for the good of the country. In such meetings, there is always a spirit of loyalty67 to the State, because that is loyalty to the people, and a reverence68 for God that gives weight to the duties and responsibilities of citizenship.
M. De Tocqueville found in these minor57 local jurisdictions69 the theoretical conservatism which, in the aggregate70, is the safest reliance of the State. So we have found them, in practice, the true protectors of the purity of the ballot, without which all free government will degenerate into absolutism.
In the future of the Republic, we must encounter many difficult and dangerous situations, but the principles established in the Constitution and the check upon hasty or inconsiderate legislation, and upon executive action, and the supreme71 arbitrament of the courts, will be found sufficient for the safety of personal rights, and for the safety of the government, and the prophetic outlook of M. De Tocqueville will be fully realized through the influence of Democracy in America. Each succeeding generation of Americans will find in the pure and impartial reflections of De Tocqueville a new source of pride in our institutions of government, and sound reasons for patriotic effort to preserve them and to inculcate their teachings. They have mastered the power of monarchical rule in the American Hemisphere, freeing religion from all shackles72, and will spread, by a quiet but resistless influence, through the islands of the seas to other lands, where the appeals of De Tocqueville for human rights and liberties have already inspired the souls of the people.
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1
ordination
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| n.授任圣职 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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wrung
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| 绞( wring的过去式和过去分词 )； 握紧（尤指别人的手）； 把（湿衣服）拧干； 绞掉（水） | |
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monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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creeds
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| （尤指宗教）信条，教条( creed的名词复数 ) | |
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ordinances
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| n.条例，法令( ordinance的名词复数 ) | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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degenerate
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| v.退步，堕落；adj.退步的，堕落的；n.堕落者 | |
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license
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| n.执照，许可证，特许；v.许可，特许 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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prosecute
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| vt.告发；进行；vi.告发，起诉，作检察官 | |
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patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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progenitors
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| n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本 | |
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agitations
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| （液体等的）摇动( agitation的名词复数 )； 鼓动； 激烈争论； （情绪等的）纷乱 | |
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continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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vindication
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| n.洗冤，证实 | |
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monarchical
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| adj. 国王的，帝王的，君主的，拥护君主制的 =monarchic | |
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aristocrat
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| n.贵族，有贵族气派的人，上层人物 | |
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coveted
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| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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embodied
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| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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eclat
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| n.显赫之成功，荣誉 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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afflicted
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| 使受痛苦，折磨( afflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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commotion
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| n.骚动，动乱 | |
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strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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slaughter
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| n.屠杀，屠宰；vt.屠杀，宰杀 | |
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wrath
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| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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42
misgivings
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| n.疑虑，担忧，害怕；疑虑，担心，恐惧( misgiving的名词复数 )；疑惧 | |
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43
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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aligned
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| adj.对齐的，均衡的 | |
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embarrassment
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| n.尴尬；使人为难的人(事物)；障碍；窘迫 | |
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46
dispelled
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| v.驱散，赶跑( dispel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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apprehensions
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| 疑惧 | |
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48
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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49
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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50
slumbered
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| 微睡，睡眠（slumber的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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amendments
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| （法律、文件的）改动( amendment的名词复数 )； 修正案； 修改； （美国宪法的）修正案 | |
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52
citizenship
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| n.市民权，公民权，国民的义务(身份) | |
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suffrage
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| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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antagonist
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| n.敌人，对抗者，对手 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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corruption
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| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
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ballot
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| n.（不记名）投票，投票总数，投票权；vi.投票 | |
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apprehended
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| 逮捕，拘押( apprehend的过去式和过去分词 )； 理解 | |
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amenable
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| adj.经得起检验的；顺从的；对负有义务的 | |
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jurisdiction
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| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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jurisdictions
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| 司法权( jurisdiction的名词复数 )； 裁判权； 管辖区域； 管辖范围 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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shackles
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| 手铐( shackle的名词复数 )； 脚镣； 束缚； 羁绊 | |
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