The advocates of Liberty and the defenders3 of Restriction4 are both obliged to employ the expressions, dearness, cheapness. The former declare themselves in favour of cheapness with a view to the interest of the consumer; the latter pronounce in favour of dearness, having regard especially to the interest of the producer. Others content themselves with saying, The producer and consumer are one and the same person; which leaves undecided the question whether the law should promote cheapness or dearness.
In the midst of this conflict, it would seem that the law has only one course to follow, and that is to allow prices to settle and adjust themselves naturally. But then we are attacked by the bitter enemies of laissez faire. At all hazards they want the law to interfere5, without knowing or caring in what direction. And yet it lies with those who desire to create by legal intervention6 an artificial dearness or an unnatural7 cheapness, to explain the grounds of their preference. The onus8 probandi rests upon them exclusively. Liberty is always esteemed9 good, till the contrary is proved; and to allow prices to settle and adjust themselves naturally, is liberty.
But the parties to this dispute have changed positions. The advocates of dearness have secured the triumph of their system, and it lies with the defenders of natural prices to prove the goodness of their cause. On both sides, the argument turns on two words; and it is therefore very essential to ascertain10 what these two words really mean.
But we must first of all notice a series of facts which are fitted to disconcert the champions of both camps.
To engender11 dearness, the restrictionists have obtained protective duties, and a cheapness, which is to them inexplicable12, has come to deceive their hopes.
To create cheapness, the free-traders have occasionally succeeded in securing liberty, and, to their astonishment13, an elevation14 of prices has been the consequence.
For example, in France, in order to favour agriculture, a duty of 22 per cent has been imposed on foreign wool, and it has turned out that French wool has been sold at a lower price after the measure than before it.
In England, to satisfy the consumer, they lowered, and ultimately removed, the duty on foreign wool; and it has come to pass that in that country the price of wool is higher than ever.
And these are not isolated15 facts; for the price of wool is governed by precisely16 the same laws which govern the price of everything else. The same result is produced in all analogous17 cases. Contrary to expectation, protection has, to some extent, brought about a fall, and competition, to some extent, a rise of prices.
When the confusion of ideas thence arising had reached its height, the protectionists began saying to their adversaries18, "It is our system which brings about the cheapness of which you boast so much." To which the reply was, "It is liberty which has induced the dearness which you find so useful."*
At this rate, would it not be amusing to see cheapness become the watch-word of the Rue1 Hauteville, and dearness the watchword of the Rue Choiseul?
Evidently there is in all this a misconception, an illusion, which it is necessary to clear up; and this is what I shall now endeavour to do.
Put the case of two isolated nations, each composed of a million of inhabitants. Grant that, coteris paribus, the one possesses double the quantity of everything,—corn, meat, iron, furniture, fuel, books, clothing, etc.,—which the other possesses.
It will be granted that the one is twice as rich as the other.
And yet there is no reason to affirm that a difference in actual money prices** exists in the two countries. Nominal19 prices may perhaps be higher in the richer country. It may be that in the United States everything is nominally20 dearer than in Poland, and that the population of the former country should, nevertheless, be better provided with all that they need; whence we infer that it is not the nominal price of products, but their comparative abundance, which constitutes wealth. When, then, we desire to pronounce an opinion on the comparative merits of restriction and free-trade, we should not inquire which of the two systems engenders21 dearness or cheapness, but which of the two brings abundance or scarcity22.
would not be difficult for me to prove that protection leads
to cheapness.
**The expression, prix absolus (absolute prices), which
the author employs here and in chap. xi. of the First Series
(ante), is not, I think, used by English economists25, and
from the context in both instances I take it to mean actual
money prices; or what Adam Smith terms nominal prices,—
Translator.
For, observe this, that products being exchanged for each other, a relative scarcity of all, and a relative abundance of all, leave the nominal prices of commodities in general at the same point; but this cannot be affirmed of the relative condition of the inhabitants of the two countries.
Let us dip a little deeper still into this subject.
When we see an increase and a reduction of duties produce effects so different from what we had expected, depreciation26 often following taxation27, and enhancement following free trade, it becomes the imperative28 duty of political economy to seek an explanation of phenomena29 so much opposed to received ideas; for it is needless to say that a science, if it is worthy30 of the name, is nothing else than a faithful statement and a sound explanation of facts.
Now the phenomenon we are here examining is explained very satisfactorily by a circumstance of which we must never lose sight.
Dearness is due to two causes, and not to one only.
The same thing holds of cheapness.
It is one of the least disputed points in political economy that price is determined31 by the relative state of supply and demand.
There are then two terms which affect price—supply and demand. These terms are essentially32 variable. They may be combined in the same direction, in contrary directions, and in infinitely33 varied34 proportions. Hence the combinations of which price is the result are inexhaustible.
High price may be the result, either of diminished supply, or of increased demand.
Low price may be the result of increased supply, or of diminished demand.
Hence there are two kinds of dearness, and two kinds of cheapness.
There is a dearness of an injurious kind, that which proceeds from a diminution35 of supply, for that implies scarcity, privation (such as has been felt this year* from the scarcity of corn); and there is a dearness of a beneficial kind, that which results from an increase of demand, for the latter presupposes the development of general wealth.
* This was written in 1847.—Translator.
In the same way, there is a cheapness which is desirable, that which has its source in abundance; and an injurious cheapness, that has for its cause the failure of demand, and the impoverishment36 of consumers.
Now, be pleased to remark this; that restriction tends to induce, at the same time, both the injurious cause of dearness, and the injurious cause of cheapness: injurious dearness, by diminishing the supply, for this is the avowed37 object of restriction; and injurious cheapness, by diminishing also the demand; seeing that it gives a false direction to labour and capital, and fetters38 consumers with taxes and trammels.
So that, as regards price, these two tendencies neutralize39 each other; and this is the reason why the restrictive system, restraining, as it does, demand and supply at one and the same time, does not in the long run realize even that dearness which is its object.
But, as regards the condition of the population, these causes do not at all neutralize each other; on the contrary, they concur40 in making it worse.
The effect of freedom of trade is exactly the opposite. In its general result, it may be that it does not realize the cheapness it promises; for it has two tendencies, one towards desirable cheapness through the extension of supply, or abundance; the other towards appreciable41 dearness by the development of demand, or general wealth. These two tendencies neutralize each other in what concerns nominal price, but they concur in what regards the material prosperity of the population.
In short, under the restrictive system, in as far as it is operative, men recede43 towards a state of things, in which both demand and supply are enfeebled. Under a system of freedom, they progress towards a state of things in which both are developed simultaneously44, and without necessarily affecting nominal prices. Such prices form no good criterion of wealth. They may remain the same whilst society is falling into a state of the most abject45 poverty, or whilst it is advancing towards a state of the greatest prosperity.
A cultivator of the south of France believes himself to be very rich, because he is protected by duties from external competition. He may be as poor as Job; but he nevertheless imagines that sooner or later he will get rich by protection. In these circumstances, if we ask him the question which was put by the Odier Committee in these words,—
"Do you desire—yes or no—to be subject to foreign competition?" His first impulse is to answer "No," and the Odier Committee proudly welcome his response.
However, we must go a little deeper into the matter. Unquestionably, foreign competition—nay, competition in general—is always troublesome; and if one branch of trade alone could get quit of it, that branch of trade would for some time profit largely.
But protection is not an isolated favour; it is a system. If, to the profit of the agriculturist, protection tends to create a scarcity of corn and of meat, it tends likewise to create, to the profit of other industries, a scarcity of iron, of cloth, of fuel, tools, etc.,—a scarcity, in short, of everything.
Now, if a scarcity of corn tends to enhance its price through a diminution of supply, the scarcity of all other commodities for which corn is exchanged tends to reduce the price of corn by a diminution of demand, so that it is not at all certain that ultimately corn will be a penny dearer than it would have been under a system of free trade. There is nothing certain in the whole process but this—that as there is upon the whole less of every commodity in the country, each man will be less plentifully47 provided with everything he has occasion to buy.
The agriculturist should ask himself whether it would not be more for his interest that a certain quantity of corn and cattle should be imported from abroad, and that he should at the same time find himself surrounded by a population in easy circumstances, able and willing to consume and pay for all sorts of agricultural produce.
Suppose a department in which the people are clothed in rags, fed upon chesnuts, and lodged48 in hovels. How can agriculture flourish in such a locality? What can the soil be made to produce with a well-founded expectation of fair remuneration? Meat? The people do not eat it. Milk? They must content themselves with water. Butter? It is regarded as a luxury. Wool? The use of it is dispensed49 with as much as possible. Does any one imagine that all the ordinary objects of consumption can thus be put beyond the reach of the masses, without tending to lower prices as much as protection is tending to raise them?
What has been said of the agriculturist holds equally true of the manufacturer. Our manufacturers of cloth assure us that external competition will lower prices by increasing the supply. Granted; but will not these prices be again raised by an increased demand? Is the consumption of cloth a fixed50 and invariable quantity? Has every man as much of it as he would wish to have? And if general wealth is advanced and developed by the abolition51 of all these taxes and restrictions52, will the first use to which this emancipation53 is turned by the population not be to dress better?
The question,—the constantly-recurring question,—then, is not to find out whether protection is favourable54 to any one special branch of industry, but whether, when everything is weighed, balanced, and taken into account, restriction is, in its own nature, more productive than liberty.
Now, no one will venture to maintain this. On the contrary, we are perpetually met with the admission, "You are right in principle."
If it be so, if restriction confers no benefit on individual branches of industry without doing a greater amount of injury to general wealth, we are forced to conclude that actual money prices, considered by themselves, only express a relation between each special branch of industry and industry in general, between supply and demand; and that, on this account, a remunerative55 price, which is the professed56 object of protection, is rather injured than favoured by the system.
SUPPLEMENT.*
* What follows appeared in the Libre échange of 1st August
1847.—Editor.
The article which we have published under the title of Dearness, Cheapness, has brought us several letters. We give them, along with our replies:—
Mr Editor,—You upset all our ideas. I endeavoured to aid the cause of free trade, and found it necessary to urge the consideration of cheapness. I went about everywhere, saying, "When freedom of trade is accorded, bread, meat, cloth, linen57, iron, fuel, will go on falling in price." This displeased58 those who sell, but gave great pleasure to those who buy these commodities. And now you throw out doubts as to whether free trade will bring us cheapness or not. What, then, is to be gained by it? What gain will it be to the people if foreign competition, which may damage their sales, does not benefit them in their purchases?
Mr Free-trader,—Allow us to tell you that you must have read only half the article which has called forth59 your letter. We said that free trade acts exactly in the same way as roads, canals, railways, and everything else which facilitates communication by removing obstacles. Its first tendency is to increase the supply of the commodity freed from duty, and consequently to lower its price. But by augmenting60 at the same time the supply of all other commodities for which this article is exchanged, it increases the demand, and the price by this means rises again. You ask what gain this would be to the people? Suppose a balance with several scales, in each of which is deposited a certain quantity of the articles you have enumerated61. If you add to the corn in one scale it will tend to fall; but if you add a little cloth, a little iron, a little fuel, to what the other scales contained, you will redress62 the equilibrium63. If you look only at the beam, you will find nothing changed. But if you look at the people for whose use these articles are produced, you will find them better fed, clothed, and warmed.
Mr Editor,—I am a manufacturer of cloth, and a protectionist. I confess that your article on dearness and cheapness has made me reflect. It contains something specious64 which would require to be well established before we declare ourselves converted.
Mr Protectionist,—We say that your restrictive measures have an iniquitous65 object in view, namely, artificial dearness. But we do not affirm that they always realize the hopes of those who promote them. It is certain that they inflict66 on the consumer all the injurious consequences of scarcity. It is not certain that they always confer a corresponding advantage on the producer. Why? Because if they diminish the supply, they diminish also the demand.
This proves that there is in the economic arrangement of this world a moral force, a vis medieatrix, which causes unjust ambition in the long run to fall a prey67 to self-deception.
Would you have the goodness, Sir, to remark that one of the elements of the prosperity of each individual branch of industry is the general wealth of the community. The value of a house is not always in proportion to what it has cost, but likewise in proportion to the number and fortune of the tenants68. Are two houses exactly similar necessarily of the same value? By no means, if the one is situated69 in Paris and the other in Lower Brittany. Never speak of price without taking into account collateral70 circumstances, and let it be remembered that no attempt is so bootless as to endeavour to found the prosperity of parts on the ruin of the whole. And yet this is what the policy of restriction pretends to do.
Consider what would have happened at Paris, for example, if this strife71 of interests had been attended with success.
Suppose that the first shoemaker who established himself in that city had succeeded in ejecting all others; that the first tailor, the first mason, the first printer, the first watchmaker, the first physician, the first baker72, had been equally successful. Paris would at this moment have been still a village of 1200 or 1500 inhabitants. It has turned out very differently. The market of Paris has been open to all (excepting those whom you still keep out), and it is this freedom which has enlarged and aggrandized73 it. The struggles of competition have been bitter and long continued, and this is what has made Paris a city of a million of inhabitants. The general wealth has increased, no doubt; but has the individual wealth of the shoemakers and tailors been diminished? This is the question you have to ask. You may say that according as the number of competitors increased, the price of their products would go on falling. Has it done so? No; for if the supply has been augmented74, the demand has been enlarged.
The same thing will hold good of your commodity, cloth; let it enter freely. You will have more competitors in the trade, it is true; but you will have more customers, and, above all, richer customers. Is it possible you can never have thought of this, when you see nine-tenths of your fellow-citizens underclothed in winter, for want of the commodity which you manufacture?
If you wish to prosper42, allow your customers to thrive. This is a lesson which you have* been very long in learning. When it is thoroughly75 learnt, each man will seek his own interest in the general good; and then jealousies76 between man and man, town and town, province and province, nation and nation, will no longer trouble the world.
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1
rue
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| n.懊悔，芸香，后悔；v.后悔，悲伤，懊悔 | |
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2
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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defenders
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| n.防御者( defender的名词复数 )；守卫者；保护者；辩护者 | |
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restriction
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| n.限制，约束 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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unnatural
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| adj.不自然的；反常的 | |
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onus
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| n.负担；责任 | |
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9
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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10
ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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11
engender
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| v.产生，引起 | |
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12
inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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13
astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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14
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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15
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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17
analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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18
adversaries
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| n.对手，敌手( adversary的名词复数 ) | |
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19
nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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20
nominally
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| 在名义上，表面地； 应名儿 | |
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engenders
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的第三人称单数 ) | |
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scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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25
economists
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| n.经济学家，经济专家( economist的名词复数 ) | |
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depreciation
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| n.价值低落，贬值，蔑视，贬低 | |
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taxation
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| n.征税，税收，税金 | |
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28
imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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29
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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30
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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32
essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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impoverishment
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| n.贫穷，穷困；贫化 | |
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37
avowed
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| adj.公开声明的，承认的v.公开声明，承认( avow的过去式和过去分词) | |
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38
fetters
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| n.脚镣( fetter的名词复数 )；束缚v.给…上脚镣，束缚( fetter的第三人称单数 ) | |
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39
neutralize
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| v.使失效、抵消，使中和 | |
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40
concur
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| v.同意，意见一致，互助，同时发生 | |
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41
appreciable
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| adj.明显的，可见的，可估量的，可觉察的 | |
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42
prosper
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| v.成功，兴隆，昌盛；使成功，使昌隆，繁荣 | |
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recede
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| vi.退(去)，渐渐远去；向后倾斜，缩进 | |
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simultaneously
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| adv.同时发生地，同时进行地 | |
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abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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plentifully
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| adv. 许多地，丰饶地 | |
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lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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abolition
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| n.废除，取消 | |
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restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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emancipation
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| n.（从束缚、支配下）解放 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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remunerative
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| adj.有报酬的 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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augmenting
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| 使扩张 | |
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enumerated
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| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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redress
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| n.赔偿，救济，矫正；v.纠正，匡正，革除 | |
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equilibrium
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| n.平衡，均衡，相称，均势，平静 | |
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specious
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| adj.似是而非的；adv.似是而非地 | |
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iniquitous
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| adj.不公正的；邪恶的；高得出奇的 | |
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inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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tenants
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| n.房客( tenant的名词复数 )；佃户；占用者；占有者 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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70
collateral
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| adj.平行的；旁系的；n.担保品 | |
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71
strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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72
baker
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| n.面包师 | |
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73
aggrandized
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| v.扩大某人的权力( aggrandize的过去式和过去分词 )；提高某人的地位；夸大；吹捧 | |
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74
Augmented
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| adj.增音的 动词augment的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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75
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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76
jealousies
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| n.妒忌( jealousy的名词复数 )；妒羡 | |
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