However, just as he was setting to work, James reflected further:--"I work for my customers 300 days in the year. If I give ten to making my plane, supposing it lasts me a year, only 290 days will remain for me to make my furniture. Now, in order that I be not the loser in this matter, I must gain henceforth, with the help of the plane, as much in 290 days, as I now do in 300. I must even gain more; for unless I do so, it would not be worth my while to venture upon any innovations." James began to calculate. He satisfied himself that he should sell his finished furniture at a price which would amply compensate2 for the ten days devoted3 to the plane; and when no doubt remained on this point, he set to work. I beg the reader to remark, that the power which exists in the tool to increase the productiveness of labour, is the basis of the solution which follows.
At the end of ten days, James had in his possession an admirable plane, which he valued all the more for having made it himself. He danced for joy,--for, like the girl with her basket of eggs, he reckoned all the profits which he expected to derive4 from the ingenious instrument; but, more fortunate than she, he was not reduced to the necessity of saying good-bye to calf5, cow, pig, and eggs, together. He was building his fine castles in the air, when he was interrupted by his acquaintance William, a joiner in the neighbouring village. William having admired the plane, was struck with the advantages which might be gained from it. He said to James:--
W. You must do me a service.
J. What service?
W. Lend me the plane for a year.
As might be expected, James at this proposal did not fail to cry out, "How can you think of such a thing, William? Well, if I do you this service, what will you do for me in return?"
W. Nothing. Don't you know that a loan ought to be gratuitous6? Don't you know that capital is naturally unproductive? Don't you know fraternity has been proclaimed. If you only do me a service for the sake of receiving one from me in return, what merit would you have?
J. William, my friend, fraternity does not mean that all the sacrifices are to be on one side; if so, I do not see why they should not be on yours. Whether a loan should be gratuitous I don't know; but I do know that if I were to lend you my plane for a year it would be giving it you. To tell you the truth, that was not what I made it for.
W. Well, we will say nothing about the modern maxims8 discovered by the Socialist9 gentlemen. I ask you to do me a service; what service do you ask me in return?
J. First, then, in a year, the plane will be done for, it will be good for nothing. It is only just, that you should let me have another exactly like it; or that you should give me money enough to get it repaired; or that you should supply me the ten days which I must devote to replacing it.
W. This is perfectly10 just. I submit to these conditions. I engage to return it, or to let you have one like it, or the value of the same. I think you must be satisfied with this, and can require nothing further.
J. I think otherwise. I made the plane for myself, and not for you. I expected to gain some advantage from it, by my work being better finished and better paid, by an improvement in my condition. What reason is there that I should make the plane, and you should gain the profit? I might as well ask you to give me your saw and hatchet! What a confusion! Is it not natural that each should keep what he has made with his own hands, as well as his hands themselves? To use without recompense the hands of another, I call slavery; to use without recompense the plane of another, can this be called fraternity?
W. But, then, I have agreed to return it to you at the end of a year, as well polished and as sharp as it is now.
J. We have nothing to do with next year; we are speaking of this year. I have made the plane for the sake of improving my work and condition; if you merely return it to me in a year, it is you who will gain the profit of it during the whole of that time. I am not bound to do you such a service without receiving anything from you in return: therefore, if you wish for my plane, independently of the entire restoration already bargained for, you must do me a service which we will now discuss; you must grant me remuneration.
And this was done thus:--William granted a remuneration calculated in such a way that, at the end of the year, James received his plane quite new, and in addition, a compensation, consisting of a new plank12, for the advantages of which he had deprived himself, and which he had yielded to his friend.
It was impossible for any one acquainted with the transaction to discover the slightest trace in it of oppression or injustice13.
The singular part of it is, that, at the end of the year, the plane came into James's possession, and he lent it again; recovered it, and lent it a third and fourth time. It has passed into the hands of his son, who still lends it. Poor plane! how many times has it changed, sometimes its blade, sometimes its handle. It is no longer the same plane, but it has always the same value, at least for James's posterity14. Workmen! let us examine into these little stories.
I maintain, first of all, that the sack of corn and the plane are here the type, the model, a faithful representation, the symbol of all capital; as the five litres of corn and the plank are the type, the model, the representation, the symbol of all interest. This granted, the following are, it seems to me, a series of consequences, the justice of which it is impossible to dispute.
1st. If the yielding of a plank by the borrower to the lender is a natural, equitable15, lawful16 remuneration, the just price of a real service, we may conclude that, as a general rule, it is in the nature of capital to produce interest. When this capital, as in the foregoing examples, takes the form of an instrument of labour, it is clear enough that it ought to bring an advantage to its possessor, to him who has devoted to it his time, his brains, and his strength. Otherwise, why should he have made it? No necessity of life can be immediately satisfied with instruments of labour; no one eats planes or drinks saws, except, indeed, he be a conjuror18. If a man determines to spend his time in the production of such things, he must have been led to it by the consideration of the power which these instruments add to his power; of the time which they save him; of the perfection and rapidity which they give to his labour; in a word, of the advantages which they procure19 for him. Now, these advantages, which have been prepared by labour, by the sacrifice of time which might have been used in a more immediate17 manner, are we bound, as soon as they are ready to be enjoyed, to confer them gratuitously20 upon another? Would it be an advance in social order, if the law decided21 thus, and citizens should pay officials for causing such a law to be executed by force? I venture to say, that there is not one amongst you who would support it. It would be to legalize, to organize, to systematize injustice itself, for it would be proclaiming that there are men born to render, and others born to receive, gratuitous services. Granted, then, that interest is just, natural, and lawful.
2nd. A second consequence, not less remarkable22 than the former, and, if possible, still more conclusive23, to which I call your attention, is this:--Interest is not injurious to the borrower. I mean to say, the obligation in which the borrower finds himself, to pay a remuneration for the use of capital, cannot do any harm to his condition. Observe, in fact, that James and William are perfectly free, as regards the transaction to which the plane gave occasion. The transaction cannot be accomplished24 without the consent of the one as well as of the other. The worst which can happen is, that James may be too exacting25; and in this case, William, refusing the loan, remains26 as he was before. By the fact of his agreeing to borrow, he proves that he considers it an advantage to himself; he proves, that after every calculation, including the remuneration, whatever it may be, required of him, he still finds it more profitable to borrow than not to borrow. He only determines to do so because he has compared the inconveniences with the advantages. He has calculated that the day on which he returns the plane, accompanied by the remuneration agreed upon, he will have effected more work, with the same labour, thanks to this tool. A profit will remain to him, otherwise he would not have borrowed. The two services of which we are speaking are exchanged according to the law which governs all exchanges, the law of supply and demand. The claims of James have a natural and impassable limit. This is the point in which the remuneration demanded by him would absorb all the advantage which William might find in making use of a plane. In this case, the borrowing would not take place. William would be bound either to make a plane for himself, or to do without one, which would leave him in his original condition. He borrows, because he gains by borrowing. I know very well what will be told me. You will say, William may be deceived, or, perhaps, he may be governed by necessity, and be obliged to submit to a harsh law.
It may be so. As to errors in calculation, they belong to the infirmity of our nature, and to argue from this against the transaction in question, is objecting the possibility of loss in all imaginable transactions, in every human act. Error is an accidental fact, which is incessantly27 remedied by experience. In short, everybody must guard against it. As far as those hard necessities are concerned, which force persons to burdensome borrowings, it is clear that these necessities exist previously28 to the borrowing. If William is in a situation in which he cannot possibly do without a plane, and must borrow one at any price, does this situation result from James having taken the trouble to make the tool? Does it not exist independently of this circumstance? However harsh, however severe James may be, he will never render the supposed condition of William worse than it is. Morally, it is true, the lender will be to blame; but, in an economical point of view, the loan itself can never be considered responsible for previous necessities, which it has not created, and which it relieves to a certain extent.
But this proves something to which I shall return. The evident interests of William, representing here the borrowers, there are many Jameses and planes, in other words, lenders and capitals. It is very evident, that if William can say to James,--"Your demands are exorbitant29; there is no lack of planes in the world;" he will be in a better situation than if James's plane was the only one to be borrowed. Assuredly, there is no maxim7 more true than this--service for service. But left us not forget that no service has a fixed30 and absolute value, compared with others. The contracting parties are free. Each carries his requisitions to the farthest possible point, and the most favourable31 circumstance for these requisitions is the absence of rivalship. Hence it follows, that if there is a class of men more interested than any other in the formation, multiplication32, and abundance of capitals, it is mainly that of the borrowers. Now, since capitals can only be formed and increased by the stimulus33 and the prospect34 of remuneration, let this class understand the injury they are inflicting35 on themselves when they deny the lawfulness36 of interest, when they proclaim that credit should be gratuitous, when they declaim against the pretended tyranny of capital, when they discourage saving, thus forcing capitals to become scarce, and consequently interests to rise.
3rd. The anecdote37 I have just related enables you to explain this apparently38 singular phenomenon, which is termed the duration or perpetuity of interest. Since, in lending his plane, James has been able, very lawfully39, to make it a condition that it should be returned to him, at the end of a year, in the same state in which it was when he lent it, is it not evident that he may, at the expiration40 of the term, lend it again on the same conditions? If he resolves upon the latter plan, the plane will return to him at the end of every year, and that without end. James will then be in a condition to lend it without end; that is, he may derive from it a perpetual interest. It will be said, that the plane will be worn out. That is true; but it will be worn out by the hand and for the profit of the borrower. The latter has taken into account this gradual wear, and taken upon himself, as he ought, the consequences. He has reckoned that he shall derive from this tool an advantage, which will allow him to restore it in its original condition, after having realised a profit from it. As long as James does not use this capital himself, or for his own advantage--as long as he renounces41 the advantages which allow it to be restored to its original condition--he will have an incontestable right to have it restored, and that independently of interest.
Observe, besides, that if, as I believe I have shown, James, far from doing any harm to William, has done him a service in lending him his plane for a year; for the same reason, he will do no harm to a second, a third, a fourth borrower, in the subsequent periods. Hence you may understand that the interest of a capital is as natural, as lawful, as useful, in the thousandth year, as in the first. We may go still further. It may happen that James lends more than a single plane. It is possible, that by means of working, of saving, of privations, of order, of activity, he may come to lend a multitude of planes and saws; that is to say, to do a multitude of services. I insist upon this point,--that if the first loan has been a social good, it will be the same with all the others; for they are all similar, and based upon the same principle. It may happen, then, that the amount of all the remunerations received by our honest operative, in exchange for services rendered by him, may suffice to maintain him. In this case, there will be a man in the world who has a right to live without working. I do not say that he would be doing right to give himself up to idleness--but I say, that he has a right to do so; and if he does so, it will be at nobody's expense, but quite the contrary. If society at all understands the nature of things, it will acknowledge that this man subsists42 on services which he receives certainly (as we all do), but which he lawfully receives in exchange for other services, which he himself has rendered, that he continues to render, and which are quite real, inasmuch as they are freely and voluntarily accepted.
And here we have a glimpse of one of the finest harmonies in the social world. I allude43 to leisure: not that leisure that the warlike and tyrannical classes arrange for themselves by the plunder44 of the workers, but that leisure which is the lawful and innocent fruit of past activity and economy. In expressing myself thus, I know that I shall shock many received ideas. But see! Is not leisure an essential spring in the social machine? Without it, the world would never have had a Newton, a Pascal, a Fenelon; mankind would have been ignorant of all arts, sciences, and of those wonderful inventions prepared originally by investigations45 of mere11 curiosity; thought would have been inert--man would have made no progress. On the other hand, if leisure could only be explained by plunder and oppression--if it were a benefit which could only be enjoyed unjustly, and at the expense of others, there would be no middle path between these two evils; either mankind would be reduced to the necessity of stagnating46 in a vegetable and stationary47 life, in eternal ignorance, from the absence of wheels to its machine--or else it would have to acquire these wheels at the price of inevitable48 injustice, and would necessarily present the sad spectacle, in one form or other, of the antique classification of human beings into masters and slaves. I defy any one to show me, in this case, any other alternative. We should be compelled to contemplate49 the Divine plan which governs society, with the regret of thinking that it presents a deplorable chasm50. The stimulus of progress would be forgotten, or, which is worse, this stimulus would be no other than injustice itself. But no! God has not left such a chasm in His work of love. We must take care not to disregard His wisdom and power; for those whose imperfect meditations51 cannot explain the lawfulness of leisure, are very much like the astronomer52 who said, at a certain point in the heavens there ought to exist a planet which will be at last discovered, for without it the celestial53 world is not harmony, but discord54.
Well, I say that, if well understood, the history of my humble55 plane, although very modest, is sufficient to raise us to the contemplation of one of the most consoling, but least understood of the social harmonies.
It is not true that we must choose between the denial or the unlawfulness of leisure; thanks to rent and its natural duration, leisure may arise from labour and saving. It is a pleasing prospect, which every one may have in view; a noble recompense, to which each may aspire56. It makes its appearance in the world; it distributes itself proportionably to the exercise of certain virtues57; it opens all the avenues to intelligence; it ennobles, it raises the morals; it spiritualizes the soul of humanity, not only without laying any weight on those of our brethren whose lot in life devotes them to severe labour, but relieving them gradually from the heaviest and most repugnant part of this labour. It is enough that capitals should be formed, accumulated, multiplied; should be lent on conditions less and less burdensome; that they should descend58, penetrate59 into every social circle, and that by an admirable progression, after having liberated60 the lenders, they should hasten the liberation of the borrowers themselves. For that end, the laws and customs ought all to be favourable to economy, the source of capital. It is enough to say, that the first of all these conditions is, not to alarm, to attack, to deny that which is the stimulus of saving and the reason of its existence--interest.
As long as we see nothing passing from hand to hand, in the character of loan, but provisions, materials, instruments, things indispensable to the productiveness of labour itself, the ideas thus far exhibited will not find many opponents. Who knows, even, that I may not be reproached for having made a great effort to burst what may be said to be an open door. But as soon as cash makes its appearance as the subject of the transaction (and it is this which appears almost always), immediately a crowd of objections are raised. Money, it will be said, will not reproduce it self, like your sack of corn; it does not assist labour, like your plane; it does not afford an immediate satisfaction, like your house. It is incapable61, by its nature, of producing interest, of multiplying itself, and the remuneration it demands is a positive extortion.
Who cannot see the sophistry62 of this? Who does not see that cash is only a transient form, which men give at the time to other values, to real objects of usefulness, for the sole object of facilitating their arrangements? In the midst of social complications, the man who is in a condition to lend, scarcely ever has the exact thing which the borrower wants. James, it is true, has a plane; but, perhaps, William wants a saw. They cannot negotiate; the transaction favourable to both cannot take place, and then what happens? It happens that James first exchanges his plane for money; he lends the money to William, and William exchanges the money for a saw. The transaction is no longer a simple one; it is decomposed63 into two parts, as I explained above in speaking of exchange. But, for all that, it has not changed its nature; it still contains all the elements of a direct loan. James has still got rid of a tool which was useful to him; William has still received an instrument which perfects his work and increases his profits; there is still a service rendered by the lender, which entitles him to receive an equivalent service from the borrower; this just balance is not the less established by free mutual64 bargaining. The very natural obligation to restore at the end of the term the entire value, still constitutes the principle of the duration of interest.
At the end of a year, says M. Thoré, will you find an additional crown in a bag of a hundred pounds?
No, certainly, if the borrower puts the bag of one hundred pounds on the shelf. In such a case, neither the plane nor the sack of corn would reproduce themselves. But it is not for the sake of leaving the money in the bag, nor the plane on the hook, that they are borrowed. The plane is borrowed to be used, or the money to procure a plane. And if it is clearly proved that this tool enables the borrower to obtain profits which he would not have made without it, if it is proved that the lender has renounced65 creating for himself this excess of profits, we may understand how the stipulation66 of a part of this excess of profits in favour of the lender, is equitable and lawful.
Ignorance of the true part which cash plays in human transactions, is the source of the most fatal errors. I intend devoting an entire pamphlet to this subject. From what we may infer from the writings of M. Proudhon, that which has led him to think that gratuitous credit was a logical and definite consequence of social progress, is the observation of the phenomenon which shows a decreasing interest, almost in direct proportion to the rate of civilisation67. In barbarous times it is, in fact, cent, per cent., and more. Then it descends68 to eighty, sixty, fifty, forty, twenty, ten, eight, five, four, and three per cent. In Holland, it has even been as low as two per cent. Hence it is concluded, that "in proportion as society comes to perfection, it will descend to zero by the time civilisation is complete. In other words, that which characterises social perfection is the gratuitousness69 of credit. When, therefore, we shall have abolished interest, we shall have reached the last step of progress." This is mere sophistry, and as such false arguing may contribute to render popular the unjust, dangerous, and destructive dogma, that credit should be gratuitous, by representing it as coincident with social perfection, with the reader's permission I will examine in a few words this new view of the question.
What is interest? It is the service rendered, after a free bargain, by the borrower to the lender, in remuneration for the service he has received by the loan. By what law is the rate of these remunerative70 services established? By the general law which regulates the equivalent of all services; that is, by the law of supply and demand.
The more easily a thing is procured71, the smaller is the service rendered by yielding it or lending it. The man who gives me a glass of water in the Pyrenees, does not render me so great a service as he who allows me one in the desert of Sahara. If there are many planes, sacks of corn, or houses, in a country, the use of them is obtained, other things being equal, on more favourable conditions than if they were few; for the simple reason, that the lender renders in this case a smaller relative service.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the more abundant capitals are, the lower is the interest.
Is this saying that it will ever reach zero? No; because, I repeat it, the principle of a remuneration is in the loan. To say that interest will be annihilated72, is to say that there will never be any motive74 for saving, for denying ourselves, in order to form new capitals, nor even to preserve the old ones. In this case, the waste would immediately bring a void, and interest would directly reappear.
In that, the nature of the services of which we are speaking does not differ from any other. Thanks to industrial progress, a pair of stockings, which used to be worth six francs, has successively been worth only four, three, and two. No one can say to what point this value will descend; but we can affirm that it will never reach zero, unless the stockings finish by producing themselves spontaneously. Why? Because the principle of remuneration is in labour; because he who works for another renders a service, and ought to receive a service. If no one paid for stockings, they would cease to be made; and, with the scarcity75, the price would not fail to reappear.
The sophism76 which I am now combating has its root in the infinite divisibility which belongs to value, as it does to matter.
It appears at first paradoxical, but it is well known to all mathematicians77, that, through all eternity78, fractions may be taken from a weight without the weight ever being annihilated. It is sufficient that each successive fraction be less than the preceding one, in a determined79 and regular proportion.
There are countries where people apply themselves to increasing the size of horses, or diminishing in sheep the size of the head. It is impossible to say precisely80 to what point they will arrive in this. No one can say that he has seen the largest horse or the smallest sheep's head that will ever appear in the world. But he may safely say that the size of horses will never attain81 to infinity82, nor the heads of sheep to nothing.
In the same way, no one can say to what point the price of stockings nor the interest of capitals will come down; but we may safely affirm, when we know the nature of things, that neither the one nor the other will ever arrive at zero, for labour and capital can no more live without recompense than a sheep without a head.
The arguments of M. Proudhon reduce themselves, then, to this:--Since the most skilful83 agriculturists are those who have reduced the heads of sheep to the smallest size, we shall have arrived at the highest agricultural perfection when sheep have no longer any heads. Therefore, in order to realise the perfection, let us behead them.
I have now done with this wearisome discussion. Why is it that the breath of false doctrine84 has made it needful to examine into the intimate nature of interest? I must not leave off without remarking upon a beautiful moral which may be drawn85 from this law:--"The depression of interest is proportioned to the abundance of capitals." This law being granted, if there is a class of men to whom it is more important than to any other that capitals be formed, accumulate, multiply, abound86, and superabound, it is certainly the class which borrows them directly or indirectly87; it is those men who operate upon materials, who gain assistance by instruments, who live upon provisions, produced and economised by other men.
Imagine, in a vast and fertile country, a population of a thousand inhabitants, destitute88 of all capital thus defined. It will assuredly perish by the pangs89 of hunger. Let us suppose a case hardly less cruel. Let us suppose that ten of these savages90 are provided with instruments and provisions sufficient to work and to live themselves until harvest time, as well as to remunerate the services of eighty labourers. The inevitable result will be the death of nine hundred human beings. It is clear, then, that since 990 men, urged by want, will crowd upon the supports which would only maintain a hundred, the ten capitalists will be masters of the market. They will obtain labour on the hardest conditions, for they will put it up to auction91, or the highest bidder92. And observe this,--if these capitalists entertain such pious93 sentiments as would induce them to impose personal privations on themselves, in order to diminish the sufferings of some of their brethren, this generosity94, which attaches to morality, will be as noble in its principle as useful in its effects. But if, duped by that false philosophy which persons wish so inconsiderately to mingle95 with economic laws, they take to remunerating labour largely, far from doing good, they will do harm. They will give double wages, it may be. But then, forty-five men will be better provided for, whilst forty-five others will come to augment96 the number of those who are sinking into the grave. Upon this supposition, it is not the lowering of wages which is the mischief97, it is the scarcity of capital. Low wages are not the cause, but the effect of the evil. I may add, that they are to a certain extent the remedy. It acts in this way: it distributes the burden of suffering as much as it can, and saves as many lives as a limited quantity of sustenance98 permits.
Suppose now, that instead of ten capitalists, there should be a hundred, two hundred, five hundred,--is it not evident that the condition of the whole population, and, above all, that of the "prolétaires,"3 will be more and more improved? Is it not evident that, apart from every consideration of generosity, they would obtain more work and better pay for it?--that they themselves will be in a better condition, to form capitals, without being able to fix the limits to this ever-increasing facility of realising equality and well-being99? Would it not be madness in them to admit such doctrines100, and to act in a way which would drain the source of wages, and paralyse the activity and stimulus of saving? Let them learn this lesson, then; doubtless, capitals are good for those who possess them: who denies it? But they are also useful to those who have not yet been able to form them; and it is important to those who have them not, that others should have them.
Yes, if the "prolétaires" knew their true interests, they would seek, with the greatest care, what circumstances are, and what are not favourable to saving, in order to favour the former and to discourage the latter. They would sympathise with every measure which tends to the rapid formation of capitals. They would be enthusiastic promoters of peace, liberty, order, security, the union of classes and peoples, economy, moderation in public expenses, simplicity101 in the machinery102 of government; for it is under the sway of all these circumstances that saving does its work, brings plenty within the reach of the masses, invites those persons to become the formers of capital who were formerly103 under the necessity of borrowing upon hard conditions. They would repel104 with energy the warlike spirit, which diverts from its true course so large a part of human labour; the monopolising spirit, which deranges105 the equitable distribution of riches, in the way by which liberty alone can realise it; the multitude of public services, which attack our purses only to check our liberty; and, in short, those subversive106, hateful, thoughtless doctrines, which alarm capital, prevent its formation, oblige it to flee, and finally to raise its price, to the especial disadvantage of the workers, who bring it into operation. Well, and in this respect is not the revolution of February a hard lesson? Is it not evident that the insecurity it has thrown into the world of business on the one hand; and, on the other, the advancement107 of the fatal theories to which I have alluded108, and which, from the clubs, have almost penetrated109 into the regions of the legislature, have everywhere raised the rate of interest? Is it not evident, that from that time the "prolétaires" have found greater difficulty in procuring110 those materials, instruments, and provisions, without which labour is impossible? Is it not that which has caused stoppages; and do not stoppages, in their turn, lower wages? Thus there is a deficiency of labour to the "prolétaires," from the same cause which loads the objects they consume with an increase of price, in consequence of the rise of interest. High interest, low wages, means in other words that the same article preserves its price, but that the part of the capitalist has invaded, without profiting himself, that of the workmen.
A friend of mine, commissioned to make inquiry111 into Parisian industry, has assured me that the manufacturers have revealed to him a very striking fact, which proves, better than any reasoning can, how much insecurity and uncertainty112 injure the formation of capital. It was remarked, that during the most distressing113 period, the popular expenses of mere fancy had not diminished. The small theatres, the fighting lists, the public-houses, and tobacco depots114, were as much frequented as in prosperous times. In the inquiry, the operatives themselves explained this phenomenon thus:--"What is the use of pinching? Who knows what will happen to us? Who knows that interest will not be abolished? Who knows but that the State will become a universal and gratuitous lender, and that it will wish to annihilate73 all the fruits which we might expect from our savings115?" Well! I say, that if such ideas could prevail during two single years, it would be enough to turn our beautiful France into a Turkey--misery would become general and endemic, and, most assuredly, the poor would be the first upon whom it would fall.
Workmen! they talk to you a great deal upon the artificial organisation116 of labour;--do you know why they do so? Because they are ignorant of the laws of its natural organisation; that is, of the wonderful organisation which results from liberty. You are told, that liberty gives rise to what is called the radical117 antagonism118 of classes; that it creates, and makes to clash, two opposite interests--that of the capitalists and that of the "prolétaires." But we ought to begin by proving that this antagonism exists by a law of nature; and afterwards it would remain to be shown how far the arrangements of restraint are superior to those of liberty, for between liberty and restraint I see no middle path. Again, it would remain to be proved that restraint would always operate to your advantage, and to the prejudice of the rich. But, no; this radical antagonism, this natural opposition119 of interests, does not exist. It is only an evil dream of perverted120 and intoxicated121 imaginations. No; a plan so defective122 has not proceeded from the Divine Mind. To affirm it, we must begin by denying the existence of God. And see how, by means of social laws, and because men exchange amongst themselves their labours and their productions, see what a harmonious123 tie attaches the classes one to the other! There are the landowners; what is their interest? That the soil be fertile, and the sun beneficent: and what is the result? That corn abounds124, that it falls in price, and the advantage turns to the profit of those who have had no patrimony125. There are the manufacturers--what is their constant thought? To perfect their labour, to increase the power of their machines, to procure for themselves, upon the best terms, the raw material. And to what does all this tend? To the abundance and the low price of produce; that is, that all the efforts of the manufacturers, and without their suspecting it, result in a profit to the public consumer, of which each of you is one. It is the same with every profession. Well, the capitalists are not exempt126 from this law. They are very busy making schemes, economising, and turning them to their advantage. This is all very well; but the more they succeed, the more do they promote the abundance of capital, and, as a necessary consequence, the reduction of interest. Now, who is it that profits by the reduction of interest? Is it not the borrower first, and finally, the consumers of the things which the capitals contribute to produce?
It is therefore certain that the final result of the efforts of each class is the common good of all.
You are told that capital tyrannises over labour. I do not deny that each one endeavours to draw the greatest possible advantage from his situation; but, in this sense, he realises only that which is possible. Now, it is never more possible for capitals to tyrannise over labour, than when they are scarce; for then it is they who make the law--it is they who regulate the rate of sale. Never is this tyranny more impossible to them, than when they are abundant; for, in that case, it is labour which has the command.
Away, then, with the jealousies127 of classes, ill-will, unfounded hatreds128, unjust suspicions. These depraved passions injure those who nourish them in their hearts. This is no declamatory morality; it is a chain of causes and effects, which is capable of being rigorously, mathematically demonstrated. It is not the less sublime130, in that it satisfies the intellect as well as the feelings.
I shall sum up this whole dissertation131 with these words:--Workmen, labourers, "prolétaires," destitute and suffering classes, will you improve your condition? You will not succeed by strife132, insurrection, hatred129, and error. But there are three things which cannot perfect the entire community, without extending these benefits to yourselves; these things are--peace, liberty, and security.
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1
hatchet
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| n.短柄小斧；v.扼杀 | |
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compensate
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| vt.补偿，赔偿；酬报 vi.弥补；补偿；抵消 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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calf
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| n.小牛，犊，幼仔，小牛皮 | |
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gratuitous
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| adj.无偿的，免费的；无缘无故的，不必要的 | |
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maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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socialist
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| n.社会主义者；adj.社会主义的 | |
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10
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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plank
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| n.板条，木板，政策要点，政纲条目 | |
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injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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equitable
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| adj.公平的；公正的 | |
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lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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17
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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conjuror
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| n.魔术师，变戏法者 | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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gratuitously
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| 平白 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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exacting
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| adj.苛求的，要求严格的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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28
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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exorbitant
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| adj.过分的；过度的 | |
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30
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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31
favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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32
multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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33
stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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34
prospect
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| n.前景，前途；景色，视野 | |
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inflicting
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的现在分词 ) | |
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lawfulness
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| 法制，合法 | |
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37
anecdote
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| n.轶事，趣闻，短故事 | |
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38
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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lawfully
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| adv.守法地，合法地；合理地 | |
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40
expiration
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| n.终结，期满，呼气，呼出物 | |
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41
renounces
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的第三人称单数 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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42
subsists
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的第三人称单数 ) | |
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43
allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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44
plunder
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| vt.劫掠财物，掠夺；n.劫掠物，赃物；劫掠 | |
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45
investigations
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| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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46
stagnating
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| v.停滞，不流动，不发展( stagnate的现在分词 ) | |
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47
stationary
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| adj.固定的，静止不动的 | |
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48
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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49
contemplate
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| vt.盘算，计议；周密考虑；注视，凝视 | |
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50
chasm
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| n.深坑，断层，裂口，大分岐，利害冲突 | |
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51
meditations
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| 默想( meditation的名词复数 )； 默念； 沉思； 冥想 | |
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52
astronomer
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| n.天文学家 | |
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53
celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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54
discord
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| n.不和，意见不合，争论，（音乐）不和谐 | |
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55
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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56
aspire
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| vi.(to，after)渴望，追求，有志于 | |
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57
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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58
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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59
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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60
liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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61
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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62
sophistry
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| n.诡辩 | |
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63
decomposed
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| 已分解的，已腐烂的 | |
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64
mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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65
renounced
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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66
stipulation
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| n.契约，规定，条文；条款说明 | |
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67
civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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68
descends
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| v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 )；下去；下降；下斜 | |
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69
gratuitousness
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| n.gratuitous（免费的，无偿的，无报酬的，不收酬劳的）的变形 | |
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70
remunerative
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| adj.有报酬的 | |
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71
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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72
annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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73
annihilate
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| v.使无效；毁灭；取消 | |
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74
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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75
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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76
sophism
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| n.诡辩 | |
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77
mathematicians
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| 数学家( mathematician的名词复数 ) | |
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78
eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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80
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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81
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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82
infinity
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| n.无限，无穷，大量 | |
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83
skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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84
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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85
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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86
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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87
indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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88
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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89
pangs
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| 突然的剧痛( pang的名词复数 )； 悲痛 | |
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90
savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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91
auction
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| n.拍卖；拍卖会；vt.拍卖 | |
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92
bidder
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| n.(拍卖时的)出价人，报价人，投标人 | |
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93
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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94
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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95
mingle
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| vt.使混合，使相混；vi.混合起来；相交往 | |
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augment
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| vt.(使)增大，增加，增长，扩张 | |
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97
mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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98
sustenance
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| n.食物，粮食；生活资料；生计 | |
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99
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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100
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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101
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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102
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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103
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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104
repel
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| v.击退，抵制，拒绝，排斥 | |
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105
deranges
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| v.疯狂的，神经错乱的( deranged的现在分词 )；混乱的 | |
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106
subversive
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| adj.颠覆性的，破坏性的；n.破坏份子，危险份子 | |
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107
advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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108
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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109
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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110
procuring
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的现在分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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111
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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112
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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113
distressing
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| a.使人痛苦的 | |
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114
depots
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| 仓库( depot的名词复数 )； 火车站； 车库； 军需库 | |
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115
savings
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| n.存款，储蓄 | |
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116
organisation
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| n.组织，安排，团体，有机休 | |
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117
radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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118
antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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119
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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120
perverted
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| adj.不正当的v.滥用( pervert的过去式和过去分词 )；腐蚀；败坏；使堕落 | |
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121
intoxicated
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| 喝醉的，极其兴奋的 | |
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122
defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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123
harmonious
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| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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124
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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125
patrimony
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| n.世袭财产，继承物 | |
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126
exempt
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| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
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127
jealousies
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| n.妒忌( jealousy的名词复数 )；妒羡 | |
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128
hatreds
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| n.仇恨，憎恶( hatred的名词复数 )；厌恶的事 | |
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129
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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130
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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131
dissertation
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| n.（博士学位）论文，学术演讲，专题论文 | |
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132
strife
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| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
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