"What a fearful charge against you, free traders," say the protectionists, "is this long succession of distinguished2 statesmen, this imposing3 race of writers, who have all held opinions differing from yours!" This we do not deny. We answer, "It is said, in support of established errors, that 'there must be some foundation for ideas so generally adopted by all nations. Should not one distrust opinions and arguments which overturn that which, until now, has been held as settled; that which is held as certain by so many persons whose intelligence and motives4 make them trustworthy?'"
We confess this argument should make a profound impression, and ought to throw doubt on the most incontestable points, if we had not seen, one after another, opinions the most false, now generally acknowledged to be such, received and professed5 by all the world during a long succession of centuries. It is not very long since all nations, from the most rude to the most enlightened, and all men, from the street-porter to the most learned philosopher, believed in the four [103] elements. Nobody had thought of contesting this doctrine6, which is, however, false; so much so, that at this day any mere naturalist's assistant, who should consider earth, water, and fire, elements, would disgrace himself.
On which our opponents make this observation: "If you suppose you have thus answered the very forcible objection you have proposed to yourselves, you deceive yourselves strangely. Suppose that men, otherwise intelligent, should be mistaken on any point whatever of natural history for many centuries, that would signify or prove nothing. Would water, air, earth, fire, be less useful to man whether they were or were not elements? Such errors are of no consequence; they lead to no revolutions, do not unsettle the mind; above all, they injure no interests, so they might, without inconvenience, endure for millions of years. The physical world would progress just as if they did not exist. Would it be thus with errors which attack the moral world? Can we conceive that a system of government, absolutely false, consequently injurious, could be carried out through many centuries, among many nations, with the general consent of educated men? Can we explain how such a system could be reconciled with the ever-increasing prosperity of nations? You acknowledge that the argument you combat ought to make a profound impression. Yes, truly, and this impression remains7, for you have rather strengthened than destroyed it."
Or again, they say: "It was only in the middle of the last century, the eighteenth century, in which all subjects, all principles, without exception, were delivered [104] up to public discussion, that these furnishers of speculative8 ideas which are applied9 to everything without being applicable to anything—commenced writing on political economy. There existed, however, a system of political economy, not written, but practised by governments. It is said that Colbert was its inventor, and it was the rule of all the States of Europe. What is more singular, it has remained so till lately, despite anathemas10 and contempt, and despite the discoveries of the modern school. This system, which our writers have called the mercantile system, consists in opposing, by prohibitions12 and duties, such foreign productions as might ruin our manufacturers by their competition. This system has been pronounced futile13, absurd, capable of ruining any country, by economical writers of all schools. It has been banished14 from all books, reduced to take refuge in the practice of every people; and we do not understand why, in regard to the wealth of nations, governments should not have yielded themselves to wise authors rather than to the old experience of a system. Above all, we cannot conceive why, in political economy, the American government should persist in resisting the progress of light, and in preserving, in its practice, those old errors which all our economists15 of the pen have designated. But we have said too much about this mercantile system, which has in its favor facts alone, though sustained by scarcely a single writer of the day."
Would not one say, who listened only to this language, that we political economists, in merely claiming for every one the free disposition17 of his own property, had, like the Fourierists, conjured18 up from our brains a new [105] social order, chimerical19 and strange; a sort of phalanstery, without precedent20 in the annals of the human race, instead of merely talking plain meum and tuum It seems to us that if there is in all this anything utopian, anything problematical, it is not free trade, but protection; it is not the right to exchange, but tariff22 after tariff applied to overturning the natural order of commerce.
But it is not the point to compare and judge of these two systems by the light of reason; the question for the moment is, to know which of the two is founded upon experience.
So, Messrs. Monopolists, you pretend that the facts are on your side; that we have, on our side, theories only.
You even flatter yourselves that this long series of public acts, this old experience of the world, which you invoke23, has appeared imposing to us, and that we confess we have not as yet refuted you as fully24 as we might.
But we do not cede21 to you the domain25 of facts, for you have on your side only exceptional and contracted facts, while we have universal ones to oppose to them; the free and voluntary acts of all men.
What do you say, and what say we?
We say:
"It is better to buy from others anything which would cost more to make ourselves."
And on your part you say:
"It is better to make things ourselves, even though it would cost less to purchase them from others."
Now, gentlemen, laying aside theory, demonstration26, [106] argument, everything which appears to afflict27 you with nausea28, which of these assertions has in its favor the sanction of universal practice?
Visit the fields, work-rooms, manufactories, shops; look above, beneath, and around you; investigate what is going on in your own establishment; observe your own conduct at all times, and then say which is the principle that directs these labors30, these workmen, these inventors, these merchants; say, too, which is your own individual practice.
Does the farmer make his clothes? Does the tailor raise the wheat which he consumes? Does not your housekeeper31 cease making bread at home so soon as she finds it more economical to buy it from the baker32? Do you give up the pen for the brush in order to avoid paying tribute to the shoe-black? Does not the whole economy of society depend on the separation of occupations, on the division of labor29; in one word, on exchange? And is exchange anything else than the calculation which leads us to discontinue, as far as we can, direct production, when indirect acquisition spares us time and trouble?
You are not, then, men of practice, since you cannot show a single man on the surface of the globe who acts in accordance with your principle.
"But," you will say, "we have never heard our principle made the rule of individual relations. We comprehend perfectly33 that this would break the social bond, and force men to live, like snails34, each one in his own shell. We limit ourselves to asserting that it governs in fact the relations which are established among the agglomerations35 of the human family."
[107]
But still, this assertion is erroneous. The family, the village, the town, the county, the state, are so many agglomerations, which all, without any exception, practically reject your principle, and have never even thought of it. All of them procure36, by means of exchange, that which would cost them more to procure by means of production. Nations would act in the same natural manner, if you did not prevent it by force.
It is we, then, who are the men of practice and of experience; for, in order to combat the interdict37 which you have placed exceptionally on certain international exchanges, we appeal to the practice and experience of all individuals, and all agglomerations of individuals whose acts are voluntary, and consequently may be called on for testimony38. But you commence by constraining39, by preventing, and then you avail yourself of acts caused by prohibition11 to exclaim, "See! practice justifies40 us!" You oppose our theory, indeed all theory. But when you put a principle in antagonism41 with ours, do you, by chance, fancy that you have formed no theory? No, no; erase42 that from your plea. You form a theory as well as ourselves; but between yours and ours there is this difference: our theory consists merely in observing universal facts, universal sentiments, universal calculations and proceedings43, and further, in classifying them and arranging them, in order to understand them better. It is so little opposed to practice, that it is nothing but practice explained. We observe the actions of men moved by the instinct of preservation44 and of progress; and what they do freely, voluntarily, is precisely45 what we call political economy, or the economy of society. We go on repeating with [108] out cessation: "Every man is practically an excellent economist16, producing or exchanging, according as it is most advantageous46 to him to exchange or to produce. Each one, through experience, is educated to science; or rather, science is only that same experience scrupulously47 observed and methodically set forth48."
As for you, you form a theory, in the unfavorable sense of the word. You imagine, you invent—proceedings which are not sanctioned by the practice of any living man under the vault49 of heaven—and then you call to your assistance constraint50 and prohibition. You need, indeed, have recourse to force, since, in wishing that men should produce that which it would be more advantageous to them to buy, you wish them to renounce51 an advantage; you demand that they should act in accordance with a doctrine which implies contradiction even in its terms.
Now, this doctrine, which, you argue, would be absurd in individual relations, we defy you to extend, even in speculation52, to transactions between families, towns, counties, states. By your own avowal53, it is applicable to international relations only.
And this is why you are obliged to repeat daily: "Principles are not in their nature absolute. That which is well in the individual, the family, the county, the state, is evil in the nation. That which is good in detail—such as, to purchase rather than to produce, when purchase is more advantageous than production—is bad in the mass. The political economy of individuals is not that of nations," and other rubbish, ejusdem farin?. And why all this? Look at it closely. It is in order to prove to us that we, consumers, are [109] your property, that we belong to you body and soul, that you have an exclusive right to our stomachs and limbs, and it is for you to nourish us and clothe us at your own price, however great may be your ignorance, your rapacity54, or the inferiority of your position.
No, you are not men of practice; you are men of abstraction—and of extraction!
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1
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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anathemas
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| n.（天主教的）革出教门( anathema的名词复数 )；诅咒；令人极其讨厌的事；被基督教诅咒的人或事 | |
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prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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prohibitions
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| 禁令，禁律( prohibition的名词复数 )； 禁酒； 禁例 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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economists
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| n.经济学家，经济专家( economist的名词复数 ) | |
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economist
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| n.经济学家，经济专家，节俭的人 | |
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17
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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conjured
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| 用魔术变出( conjure的过去式和过去分词 )； 祈求，恳求； 变戏法； （变魔术般地） 使…出现 | |
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chimerical
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| adj.荒诞不经的，梦幻的 | |
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precedent
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| n.先例，前例；惯例；adj.在前的，在先的 | |
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cede
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| v.割让，放弃 | |
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tariff
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| n.关税，税率；(旅馆、饭店等)价目表，收费表 | |
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invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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afflict
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| vt.使身体或精神受痛苦，折磨 | |
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nausea
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| n.作呕，恶心；极端的憎恶(或厌恶) | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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housekeeper
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| n.管理家务的主妇，女管家 | |
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baker
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| n.面包师 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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snails
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| n.蜗牛；迟钝的人；蜗牛( snail的名词复数 ) | |
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agglomerations
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| n.成团，结块（agglomeration的复数形式） | |
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procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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interdict
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| v.限制；禁止；n.正式禁止；禁令 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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39
constraining
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| 强迫( constrain的现在分词 )； 强使； 限制； 约束 | |
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justifies
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| 证明…有理( justify的第三人称单数 )； 为…辩护； 对…作出解释； 为…辩解（或辩护） | |
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antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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erase
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| v.擦掉；消除某事物的痕迹 | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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scrupulously
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| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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vault
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| n.拱形圆顶，地窖，地下室 | |
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50
constraint
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| n.(on)约束，限制；限制(或约束)性的事物 | |
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51
renounce
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| v.放弃；拒绝承认，宣布与…断绝关系 | |
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52
speculation
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| n.思索，沉思；猜测；投机 | |
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53
avowal
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| n.公开宣称，坦白承认 | |
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rapacity
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| n.贪婪，贪心，劫掠的欲望 | |
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