IN a great college in America a new educational experiment has been tried with some success. Instead of the instruction in history which students receive in most other institutions, an attempt has been made in this college to give instruction in a very different manner, which it is believed will not be of less educational value than the more ordinary processes of teaching. In the course of study to which I am now referring the student is invited to consider, not so much the history of the development of the Constitution of one particular country, as to make a broad survey of the different Constitutions under which the several countries of the world are at this moment governed. The promoters of this scheme believe that many of the intellectual advantages which are 192ordinarily expected to be gained by the study of the history of one country may be secured equally well by studying only existing conditions, provided that attention is given to several countries which have arrived at different stages of civilisation6.
Without attempting to say how far the study of the existing Constitutions of France and Germany, America and Australia, Turkey and India, Morocco and Fiji, might be justly used to supersede7 the study of English history, it may at least be urged that if we had no annals from which history could be compiled it might be instructive to employ such a substitute for historical studies as is here suggested. This is, indeed, the course which we are compelled to take in our study of that great chapter in earth-history which we are discussing in these pages. It is obvious from the nature of the case that it can never be possible for us to obtain direct testimony8 as to what occurred in the bringing together of the materials of this globe. We must, therefore, look abroad through the universe, and see whether we can find, from the study of other systems at present in various stages of their evolution, illustrations of the incidents which we may presume to have occurred in the early stages of our own history.
If Kant had never lived, if Laplace had never announced his Nebular Theory, if the discoveries of Sir William Herschel had not been made, I still venture to think that a due consideration of the remarkable9 photograph of the famous Great Spiral, which was obtained at the famous Lick Observatory in California, would have suggested the high probability of that doctrine10 which we describe as the Nebular Theory.
193
(From the Royal Astronomical12 Series.)
194If an artist thoroughly13 versed14 in the great facts of astronomy had been commissioned to represent the nebular origin of our system as perfectly15 as a highly cultivated yet disciplined imagination would permit, I do not think he could have designed anything which could answer the purpose more perfectly than does that picture which is now before us. We might wish indeed that Kant and Laplace and Herschel could have lived to see this marvellous natural illustration of their views, for photographs were of course unthought of in those days, and, I need hardly say, that for any one celestial16 nebula that could have been known in the times of Laplace, hundreds are now within the reach of astronomers18.
We entreat19 special attention to this picture which Nature has herself given us, and which represents what we may not unreasonably20 conclude to be a system in a state of formation. Let me say at once that our solar system, however imposing21 it may be from our point of view, is but of infinitesimal importance as compared with the system which is here in the course of development. It is sometimes urged that it is difficult to imagine how a system so large as ours could have been produced by condensation22 from a prim23?val nebula. The best answer is found in the fact that the Great Spiral now before us may be considered to exhibit at this very moment a system in actual evolution, the central body of which is certainly thousands of times, and not improbably millions of times, greater than the sun, and of which the attending planets or other revolving24 bodies, are framed on a scale immensely transcending25 that of even Jupiter himself. The details of this remarkable 195nebula seem to illustrate26 those particular features which had been previously27 assigned to the prim?val nebula of our system, long before any photograph was available for the purpose of their study.
In the Great Nebula in Orion, to which we have already referred, as well as in many other similar objects which we might also have adduced, the nebulous material from which after long ages new systems may be the result, was shown in an extremely chaotic state. It was little more than an irregular stain of light on the sky. But in the picture of the Great Spiral which is before us (Fig. 28) it is manifest that the evolution of the system has reached an advanced stage; such considerable progress has been made in the actual formation that the final form seems to be shadowed forth28. The luminosity is no longer diffused29 in a chaotic condition; it has formed into spirals, and become much condensed at the centre and somewhat condensed in other regions. As we now see it, the object seems to represent a system much more advanced in its formation than any of the other great nebul? with which we have compared it. In comparison with it the evolution of such an object as the Great Nebula in Orion can hardly be said to have begun. But in the Great Spiral many portions of the nebula have already become outlined into masses which, though still far from resembling the planets in the solar system, have at least made some approach thereto while the central portions are being drawn30 together, just as we may conceive the great prim?val fire-mist to have drawn together in the actual formation of the sun.
The famous nebula which we are discussing, and 196which is generally known as the Great Spiral, is found in the constellation31 of Canes32 Venatici, very near the end star in the tail of the Great Bear, and one-fourth of the way from it to Cor Caroli. It will be easy to find it from the indication given in the adjoining Fig. 29. As a nebulous spot it is an object which can be seen with any moderately good telescope, but to detect those details which indicate the spiral structure demands an instrument of first-class power. This object had indeed been studied by many astronomers before Lord Rosse turned his colossal33 reflector upon it. Then it was that the wonderful whirlpool structure was first discovered, and thus the earliest spiral nebula became known.
Fig. 29.—How to Find the Great Spiral Nebula.
In those days there were few telescopes of great power, and none of those instruments appeared able 197to deal with this nebula sufficiently34 to reveal its spiral character. The announcement of the discovery of the spiral constitution of this object was therefore received with incredulity by some astronomers, who believed, or professed35 to believe, that the spiral lines of nebulous matter which Lord Rosse described so faithfully, existed only in the imagination of the astronomer17. Indeed, in one notable instance, it was alleged36 that these features were to be attributed to actual imperfections in the unrivalled telescope. The incredulity widely prevalent in the middle of the last century about the existence of the spiral nebul? may be paralleled by the incredulity about other discoveries in more recent years. When a highly skilled observer, using an instrument of adequate power, and, it may be, enjoying unequalled opportunities for good work, testifies to certain discoveries; when he has employed in the verification of his observations the skill and experience that years of practice have procured37 for him, it is futile38 for those who have not the like opportunities, either from the want of instruments of adequate power or from climatic difficulties, to deny the truth of discoveries because they are not able to verify them. It was absurd for astronomers to refuse assent39 to the great discoveries of Lord Rosse simply because instruments inferior to his would not show the spiral structure.
In due time, one astronomer after another began to admit that possibly the remarkable form which Lord Rosse announced as characteristic of some nebul? might not be a mere40 figment of the imagination. The complete vindication41 of Lord Rosse’s great discovery was not, however, attained42 until that wonderful advance in the arts of astronomy when the photographic plate was 198called in to supplement, or rather vastly to extend, the powers of the eye. Dr. Isaac Roberts not only showed by a magnificent photograph that the Great Spiral discovered by Lord Rosse was just as Lord Rosse had described it, he not only showed that the other spirals announced by Lord Rosse were equally entitled to the name, but, with the newly acquired powers that the photographic plate placed at his disposal, he was able to show that many other nebul?, which had been frequently observed and had even been sketched43, possessed44 further features too faint and delicate to be seen by any human eye, even with the help of the most powerful telescope. These further features were discovered because they came within the ken1 of the intensely acute perception of the photographic plate. On the plate these features which the camera showed, were added to those which the eye had already perceived, and when these additions were made it was not infrequently found that the nebula assumed the form of a spiral. But the most remarkable circumstance has still to be added. Some of the plates exposed by Dr. Roberts show clear and unmistakable photographs of spiral nebul? as exquisite45 in detail as the Great Spiral itself, but yet so faint that they have never been seen by the eye in any telescope whatever, though they could not elude46 the photographic plate. Thus, Dr. Roberts not only confirmed in the most splendid manner that really great discovery of the spiral nebul? of which the honour belongs to Lord Rosse, but the eminent47 photographic astronomer added many other spirals of the greatest interest to the list of those objects which Lord Rosse had himself given.
Though these discoveries placed the fact of the existence of spiral nebul? in an impregnable position, and 199though they greatly increased the interest with which astronomers study such objects, yet another stop had to be taken before the spiral nebula attained the position of extraordinary importance as a celestial object which must now be acknowledged to be its due.
Fig. 30.—A Group of Nebul? (Lord Rosse).
(3440, 3445 in n.g.c.)
(From the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.)
We have already had occasion (page 67) to mention the marvellous discoveries of nebul? which the lamented48 Professor Keeler made with the Crossley Reflector at the Lick Observatory. We have explained that his discoveries have shown the number of nebul? in the heavens to be probably at least twenty times that which previous observations would have authorised us in asserting. The mere announcement that 120,000 new nebul? were within the reach of a photographic plate attached to the Crossley Reflector, would, by itself, have been a 200statement so remarkable as to command the immediate49 attention of the scientific world. But the interest of even this statement shrinks to unimportance relatively50 to the further fact which Professor Keeler has added. I do not know, in the annals of astronomy, a pronouncement of greater interest, certainly none of more importance for our present purpose, than the statement that of the 120,000 new nebul?, at least half are spirals. Here is indeed a stupendous revolution in our knowledge of the celestial objects. Fifty years ago Lord Rosse announced the discovery of a spiral nebula, and the existence of this spiral was doubted at first, though it was gradually conceded at last. Now we have the announcement, on the unchallenged evidence of the photographic plate itself, that to all appearances there are at least 60,000 spiral nebul? in the heavens. It is, alas51! too true that Professor Keeler did not live long enough to enumerate52 all those nebul? himself, and, indeed, they have not so far been actually counted, but to those who will study Professor Keeler’s papers, the evidence of the substantial accuracy of the statement is incontestable.
Fig. 31.—A Ray Nebula (Lord Rosse).
(3628 in n.g.c.)
(From the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society.)
And astonishing as this statement may be, we have still to add that, in face of the actual facts, it may be regarded as even a moderate estimate of the abundance of spirals in the universe. We must remember that a spiral nebula is a flat object with long arms extending from it which lie nearly in the same plane. If we are actually to see that such an object is spiral, it is necessary for it to be turned squarely towards the earth. If the object be too much foreshortened, it is quite plain that we can hardly expect to detect its spiral character. It is also obvious 201if the spiral happens to be turned edgeways towards us, that then its spiral form cannot be seen; it would merely appear as what astronomers often call a ray. In the enumeration53 of the spirals it is therefore only possible for us to include those which happen to be so far squarely turned towards the earth as to make their spiral character unmistakable. We might, therefore, reasonably expect that the numbers of spiral nebul? actually counted would fall short of the reality. We know that there are many nebul? of a somewhat elliptical shape (Fig. 31). There are also many nebul? that look like long rays (Fig. 30). Those who are familiar with the appearance of nebul? in great telescopes will recall at once the numerous spindle-shaped objects of this class. It can hardly 202be doubted that many of the nebul?, more or less oval in form, and also these rays or the spindle-shaped objects so frequently seen in good telescopes (Fig. 33) are in reality spiral nebul?, which are turned not squarely towards us, but which we are merely looking at more or less edgewise, so that they have been foreshortened enough to hide their peculiar54 structure (Figs. 34, 35). Taking these considerations into account, it becomes obvious that the estimate of Professor Keeler as to the number of spiral nebul? in the heavens, vast as that estimate seems, may still fall short of the truth. Thus we are led to one of the most remarkable conclusions of modern astronomy, viz. that the spiral nebula, next to a star itself, is the most characteristic object in the sidereal55 heavens.
In treating of the nebul? in Chapter IV. we explained those fundamental features of the different spectra56 which make it possible to discriminate57 with confidence between a nebula which is purely58 gaseous and a nebula which cannot be so described. As the spiral nebul? form a class characterised among all the other nebul? by the possession of a very particular structure, it is interesting to enquire59 what evidence the spectrum60 gives with regard to the nature of the material which enters into the constitution of the nebul? which belong to this strongly-marked group. I do not mean to say that all the 60,000 spirals have been examined with the spectroscope, but, as already explained on page 67, a sufficient number have been examined to decide the question. We learn from Professor Scheiner, a well-known authority on astronomical spectroscopy, that the spectra of spirals are generally found to be continuous; in other words, we learn that 203a spiral nebula is not gaseous. It does not consist, like, for example, the nebula in Orion, of vaporous matter in a state of incandescence61.
A nebula or a nebulous-looking object which does not give a spectrum of bright lines, but which does give a continuous spectrum, is not infrequently set down as being merely a cluster of stars. This is undoubtedly62 a true statement with regard to some of these nebulous objects, but it is not true with regard to all. It is much more reasonable to suppose that the greater part of the materials of the spiral nebul?, though certainly not in the form of gas, are still not condensed into objects large enough to entitle them to be called stars. It must be remembered that when an object of a gaseous nature has lost heat by radiation, and has begun to draw itself together, the gas condenses into particles which constitute small portions of liquid or solid, just as the vapour of water in the atmosphere condenses into the beads63 of water that form the clouds in our own sky. These small objects, even if incandescent64, would no longer radiate light with the characteristics of a gaseous nebula. The light they would emit would be of the same character as that dispensed65 from the particles of carbon in the solar photosphere66 to which the sun owes its light. Radiation from such a source would give light with a continuous spectrum, like that from the sun or a star.
From the fact that the spectra of the spiral nebul? are continuous, we may infer that, though these nebul? have reached an advanced stage in their development, they have not always, and, perhaps, not generally, attained to the stage in which condensation transformed them into a cluster of actual 204stars. They have, however, reached a stage in their progress towards those systems of large bodies that they are ultimately to become. The character of its spectrum may show us that the spiral nebula is not very young, that it has attained a considerable age in its evolution as compared with other nebul? which do not show the spiral character and which have a gaseous spectrum. The importance of this consideration will be made apparent in the next chapter, when we discuss the dynamical conditions to which a spiral nebula must submit.
But there is no reason to doubt that some of the spiral nebul? may be in reality star-clusters, in which there are aggregations67 of myriads68 of points, each justly entitled by its dimensions and its lustre69 to be regarded as a real star. The great nebula in Andromeda seems to be a greatly foreshortened spiral. This, at least, is the interpretation70 which may perhaps be most reasonably given to Dr. Roberts’ famous photograph of this splendid object. The spectrum of the Andromeda nebula has been photographed by Scheiner after a protracted71 exposure of seven and a half hours. That spectrum showed no trace of bright lines, thus proving that there is no discernible incandescent gas in the nebula of Andromeda. It gives practically a continuous spectrum, across which some broad bands can be recognised. It was interesting to compare this spectrum of the great nebula in Andromeda with the solar spectrum seen by the same apparatus72 and under the same conditions. Professor Scheiner announces that there was a remarkable coincidence between the two, and he draws the inference that the stars which enter into the 205nebula in Andromeda are stars of that particular type to which the sun belongs.
(Photographed by Professor E. E. Barnard.)
(From the Royal Astronomical Society Series.)
But we have now to point out how the recent study of nebul? has afforded a yet more striking confirmation74 206of the nebular theory. Laplace showed how a gradually condensing nebula might have formed a sun and a system of planets. Had Laplace known of the spiral nebul? he would, I doubt not, have found in them the most striking illustration of the operation of evolution on a gigantic scale. They would have provided him with admirable arguments in support of the nebular theory. It is possible that they might also have provided suggestions as to the details of the evolution, which he had not anticipated. But Laplace did not know of such objects, and we can only deplore75 the loss of the instructive lessons which his incomparable genius would have derived76 from them.
We must, however, admit that the lessons as to the origin of the solar system, derived from the spiral nebul?, must be received with due limitation. We may say at once that the great spiral nebul? do not appear to be evolving into systems like the sun and planets; their work is of a higher order of magnitude altogether. The great spiral nebul? seem to be more analogous77 to galaxies78, like the Milky Way (Fig. 32), than to solar systems. The spiral nebula instead of being described as a system, should perhaps be described as a system of systems. If the solar system were drawn to scale on the photograph of the Great Spiral (Fig. 28) the orbit of Neptune79 would not be larger than the smallest recognisable dot.
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1
ken
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| n.视野，知识领域 | |
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observatory
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| n.天文台，气象台，瞭望台，观测台 | |
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3
chaotic
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| adj.混沌的，一片混乱的，一团糟的 | |
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gaseous
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| adj.气体的，气态的 | |
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nebula
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| n.星云，喷雾剂 | |
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civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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supersede
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| v.替代；充任 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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9
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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fig
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| n.无花果(树) | |
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astronomical
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| adj.天文学的，（数字）极大的 | |
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13
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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14
versed
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| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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celestial
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| adj.天体的；天上的 | |
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astronomer
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| n.天文学家 | |
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astronomers
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| n.天文学者，天文学家( astronomer的名词复数 ) | |
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entreat
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| v.恳求，恳请 | |
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unreasonably
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| adv. 不合理地 | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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condensation
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| n.压缩，浓缩；凝结的水珠 | |
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prim
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| adj.拘泥形式的，一本正经的；n.循规蹈矩，整洁；adv.循规蹈矩地，整洁地 | |
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revolving
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| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
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transcending
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| 超出或超越（经验、信念、描写能力等）的范围( transcend的现在分词 )； 优于或胜过… | |
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illustrate
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| v.举例说明，阐明；图解，加插图 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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diffused
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| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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constellation
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| n.星座n.灿烂的一群 | |
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canes
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| n.（某些植物，如竹或甘蔗的）茎( cane的名词复数 )；（用于制作家具等的）竹竿；竹杖 | |
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colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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assent
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| v.批准，认可；n.批准，认可 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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vindication
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| n.洗冤，证实 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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sketched
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| v.草拟（sketch的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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elude
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| v.躲避，困惑 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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lamented
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| adj.被哀悼的，令人遗憾的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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52
enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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53
enumeration
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| n.计数，列举；细目；详表；点查 | |
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54
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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sidereal
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| adj.恒星的 | |
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56
spectra
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| n.光谱 | |
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discriminate
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| v.区别，辨别，区分；有区别地对待 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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enquire
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| v.打听，询问；调查，查问 | |
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spectrum
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| n.谱，光谱，频谱；范围，幅度，系列 | |
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61
incandescence
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| n.白热，炽热；白炽 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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beads
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| n.（空心）小珠子( bead的名词复数 )；水珠；珠子项链 | |
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incandescent
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| adj.遇热发光的， 白炽的，感情强烈的 | |
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dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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photosphere
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| n.光球 | |
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aggregations
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| n.聚集( aggregation的名词复数 )；集成；集结；聚集体 | |
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myriads
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| n.无数，极大数量( myriad的名词复数 ) | |
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lustre
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| n.光亮，光泽；荣誉 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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milky
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| adj.牛奶的，多奶的；乳白色的 | |
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confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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deplore
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| vt.哀叹，对...深感遗憾 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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galaxies
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| 星系( galaxy的名词复数 )； 银河系； 一群（杰出或著名的人物） | |
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Neptune
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| n.海王星 | |
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