Dr. Robertson tells us that the ignorant pretenders to medical skill amongst the North American Indians were compelled to cover their ignorance concerning the structure of the human body, and the causes of its diseases, by imputing3 the origin of the maladies which they failed to cure to supernatural influences of a baleful sort. They therefore “prescribed or performed a variety of mysterious rites4, which they gave out to be of such efficacy as to remove the most dangerous and inveterate5 malice6. The credulity and love of the marvellous natural to uninformed men favoured the deception7, and prepared them to be the dupes of those impostors. Among savages8, their first physicians are a kind of conjurers, or wizards, who boast that they know what is past, and can foretell10 what is to come. Thus, superstition11, in its earliest form, flowed from the solicitude12 of man to be delivered from present distress13, not from his dread14 of evils awaiting him in a future life, and was originally ingrafted on medicine, not on religion. One of the first and most intelligent historians of America was struck with this alliance between the art of divination15 and that of physic among the people of Hispaniola. But this was not peculiar16 to them. The Alexis, the Piayas, the Autmoins, or whatever was the distinguishing name of the diviners and charmers in other parts of America, were all physicians of their respective tribes, in the same manner as the Buhitos of Hispaniola. As their function led them to apply to the human mind when enfeebled by sickness, and as they found it, in that season of dejection, prone17 to be alarmed with imaginary fears, or assured with vain hopes, they easily induced it to rely with implicit18 confidence on the virtue19 of their spells and the certainty of their predictions.”60
The aborigines of the Amazon have a kind of priests called Pagés,27 like the medicine-men of the North American Indians. They attribute all diseases either to poison or to the charms of some enemy. Of course, diseases caused by magic can only be cured by magic, so these powerful priest-physicians cure their patients by strong blowing and breathing upon them, accompanied by the singing of songs and by incantations. They are believed to have the power to kill enemies, and to afflict20 with various diseases. As they are much believed in, these pagés are well paid for their services. They are acquainted with the properties of many poisonous plants. One of their poisons most frequently used is terrible in its effects, causing the tongue and throat, as well as the intestines21, to putrefy and rot away, leaving the sufferer to linger in torment22 for several days.61
Amongst many savage9 tribes their medicine-men pretend to remove diseases by sucking the affected23 part of the body. They have previously24 placed bits of bone, stones, etc., in their mouths, and they pretend they have removed them from the patient, and exhibit them as proofs of their success. The Shaman, or wizard-priest of the religion still existing amongst the peoples of Northern Asia, who pretends to have dealings with good and evil spirits, is the successor of the priests of Accad; thus is the Babylonian religion reduced to the level of the heathenism of Mongolia.
The aborigines of the Darling River, New South Wales, believe that sickness is caused by an enemy, who uses certain charms called the Yountoo and Molee. The Yountoo is made from a piece of bone taken from the leg of a deceased friend. This is wrapped up in a piece of the dried flesh from the body of another deceased friend. The package is tied with some hair from the head of a third friend. When this charm is used against an enemy, it is taken to the camp where he sleeps, and after certain rites are performed it is pointed25 at the person to be injured. The doctor of the tribe attributes disease to this sort of enchantment26, and pretends to suck out of his patient the piece of bone which he declares has entered his body and caused the mischief27. The Molee is a piece of white quartz28, which is pointed at the victim with somewhat similar ceremonies and consequences. The possessors of these powerful charms take care to hide them from view. When the doctor, or Maykeeka, sucks out the Yountoo—bone chip—from his patient, he must throw it away. The Molee must be cast into water.
Mr. F. Bonney read a paper on “Some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling,” before the Anthropological29 Society of Great Britain, May 8th, 1883, in which the process of curing diseases is described. He says:28 “On one occasion, when I was camped in the Purnanga Ranges, I watched by the light of a camp-fire a doctor at work, sucking the back of a woman who was suffering from pains in that part. While she sat on a log a few yards distant from the camp-fire, he moved about her, making certain passes with boughs30 which he held, and then sucked for some time the place where pain was felt; at last he took something from his mouth, and, holding it towards the firelight, declared it to be a piece of bone. The old women sitting near loudly expressed their satisfaction at his success. I asked to be allowed to look at it, and it was given to me. I carelessly looked at it, and then pretended to throw it into the fire, but, keeping it between my fingers, I placed it in my pocket, when I could do so unobserved; and on the following morning, when I examined it by daylight, it proved to be a small splinter of wood, and not bone. At the time the patient appeared to be very much relieved by the treatment.” Another mode of treatment described by Mr. Bonney is that of sucking poison, supposed to have been sent into the patient by an enemy, through a string. The patient complained of sickness in the stomach; the woman doctor placed the patient on her back on the ground, tied a string round the middle of her naked body, leaving a loose end about eighteen inches long. The doctress then began sucking the string, passing the loose end through her mouth, from time to time spitting blood and saliva32 into a pot. She repeated this many times, until the patient professed33 to be cured.
The people of Timor-laut, near the island of New Guinea, scar themselves on the arms and shoulders with red-hot stones, in imitation of immense small-pox marks, in order to ward31 off that disease.62
Among the Kaffirs diseases are all attributed to three causes—either to being enchanted34 by an enemy, to the anger of certain beings whose abode35 appears to be in the rivers, or to the power of evil spirits.63
“Among the Kalmucks,” says Lubbock, “the cures are effected by exorcising the evil spirit. This is the business of the so-called ‘priests,’ who induce the evil spirit to quit the body of the patient and enter some other object. If a chief is ill, some other person is induced to take his name, and then, as is supposed, the evil spirit passes into his body.”64
Pritchard tells us that29 “the priests of the Negroes are also the physicians, as were the priests of Apollo and ?sculapius. The notions which the Negroes entertain of the causes of diseases are very different. The Watje attribute them to evil spirits whom they call Dobbo. When these are very numerous, they ask of their sacred cotton-tree permission to hunt them out. Hereupon a chase is appointed, and they do not cease following the demons36 with arms and great cries until they have chased them beyond their boundaries. This chase of the spirits of disease is very customary among many nations of Guinea, who universally believe that many diseases arise from enchantment, and others by the direction of the Deity38.”65
It is interesting to note, as showing the ingenuity of the priests, that during the extremely dangerous rainy season the doctors’ remedies are of very little use; then the priests say this is because the gods at this particular season are obliged to appear at the court of the superior deity. During their absence at court, the priests cannot obtain access to them; and as without their advice they could not efficaciously prescribe, such medicines as they offer have little good effect.
The Antilles Indians in Columbus’s time went through the pretence39 of pulling the disease off the patient and blowing it away, telling it to begone to the sea or the mountains.
That the disease-demon37 may often be blown away by a plentiful40 supply of fresh air is now an article of every hygienist’s creed41.
The Badaga folk, mountaineers of the Neilgherries, insure their children against accidents and sickness by talismans42 made of the earth and ashes of funeral pyres. They think the souls of the departed are so vexed44 at finding themselves in a novel condition that they are liable to kill people even without a motive45. When an epidemic46 breaks out, they lay the blame on the person who died last, who is going about the country taking vengeance47 on his kindred.66
Monier Williams says they endeavour to induce the demon of pestilence48, of typhoid fever, of the plague of rats or caterpillars49, to enter into the body of a dancer, who acts as a medium and has power to exorcise the angry spirit. He has power to let loose rot or farcy amongst the flocks and herds50, so the medium has to be conciliated. The Corumba of these mountain people is a wizard, the sicknesses of men and animals are all set down to his account. “Gratified by the evil reputation the Corumba enjoy, they offer to undo51 what they are supposed to have done, to remove the spells they are accused of having cast. The wheat is smutty, the flocks have the scab? Somebody’s head aches, some one’s stomach is out of order? One of these rogues52 turns up, offers to eject the demon; as it happens, the evil spirit is one of his particular cronies! He will cast out Beelzebub by Beelzebub.”67
Amongst the Western Inoits, says Elie Reclus,68 the magician of the30 people is called Angakok, signifying the “Great” or “the Ancient,” and he is guide, instructor53, wonder-worker, physician, and priest. He accumulates in himself all influences; “he is public counsellor, justice of the peace, arbitrator in public and private affairs, artist of all kinds, poet, actor, buffoon54.” Supposed to be in contact and close communication with the superior beings of the world of spirits, and to harbour in his body many demons of various kinds, he is supposed to be invested with omnipotence55, he can chase away the disease-demons, and put even death itself to flight. The angakok defends his people from the demons who take the form of cancers, rheumatism56, paralysis57, and skin diseases. He exorcises the sick man with stale urine, like the Bochiman poison-doctors.69
The Cambodians exorcise the small-pox demon with the urine of a white horse.70
Thiers (Des Superstitions), quoted by Reclus, says that Slavonic rustics58 asperse59 their cattle with herbs of St. John boiled in urine to keep ill-luck away from them; and that French peasant women used to wash their hands in their own urine, or in that of their husbands and children, to prevent evil enchantments60 doing them harm. Reclus says: “When a diagnosis61 puzzles an angakok, he has recourse to a truly ingenious proceeding62. He fastens to the invalid’s head a string, the other end of which is attached to a stick; this he raises, feels, balances on his hand, and turns in every direction. Various operations follow, having for their object the forcible removal of the spider from the luckless wretch63 whose flesh it devours64. He will cleanse65 and set to rights as much as he is able—whence his name ‘Mender of Souls.’ A wicked witch, present though invisible, can undo the efforts of the conjurer, and even communicate to him the disease, rendering66 him the victim of his devotion; black magic can display more power than white magic. Then, seeing the case to be desperate, the honest angakok summons, if possible, one or more brethren, and the physicians of souls strive in concert to comfort the dying man; with a solemn voice they extol67 the felicities of Paradise, chanting softly a farewell canticle, which they accompany lightly upon the drum.”71
The superstitious68 natives of the Lower Congo have a singular custom, when anybody dies, of compelling some victim or other to drink a poison made from the bark of the Erythrophl?um guineensis. It usually acts as a powerful emetic69, and is administered in the hope that it may “bring up” the devil. Their medicine-man is called nganga, and he is taught a language quite different from the ordinary tongue,31 and this is kept secret from females. “No one,” says Mr. H.?H. Johnston (“On the Races of the Congo”),72 “has yet been able to examine into their sacred tongue.” The use of Latin by civilized70 doctors is not unlike this African custom.
The mountaineers of the Neilgherries endeavour to induce the demon they invoke71 to enter into the body of the “medium,” a dancer who pretends to the intoxication72 of prophecy. If they can persuade the demon of pestilence or typhoid fever to enter into the medium, it becomes possible to act upon and influence him.73
The people of Tartary make a great puppet when fever is prevalent, which they call the Demon of Intermittent73 Fevers, and which when completed they set up in the tent of the patients.
Mr. Forbes, in his account of the tribes of the island of Timor, says that the natives believe all diseases to be the result of sorcery, and they carry a variety of herbs and charms to avert74 its influence. He says: “I had as a servant an old man, who one morning complained of being in a very discomposed and generally uncomfortable state, and of being afraid he was going to die. He had seen, he said, the spirit of his mother in the night, she had been present by him and had spoken with him. He feared, therefore, that he was about to die. He begged of me some tobacco and rice to offer to her, which I gave him. He retired75 a little way to a great stone in the ground, and laying on it some betel and pinang, with a small quantity of chalk, along with a little tobacco and rice, he repeated for some eight or ten minutes an invocation which I did not understand. The rice and the chalk he left on the stone, which were very shortly after devoured76 by my fowls77; the tobacco, betel, and pinang he took away again, to be utilised by himself.”74
When the medicine-man of these tribes calls to see a patient, he looks very closely at him, to endeavour to perceive the sorcerer who is making him ill. Then he returns to his home and makes up some medicines, which the happy patient has not however to swallow, but the drugs having been packed by the doctor into a bundle with a small stone, are thrown away as far as possible from the sick man; the stone finds out the sorcerer and returns to the doctor, who gives it to his patient and tells him it will cure him if he will wear it about his neck. This affords another illustration of the universal belief of the value of amulets in medicine.
Medicine amongst certain tribes has a connection with the adoration78 of particular objects and animals believed to be related to each32 separate stock or blood-kindred of human beings, and which is known in anthropology79 as totemism. The Algonquin Indians use the name, Bear, Wolf, Tortoise, Deer, or Rabbit to designate each of a number of clans80 into which the race is divided. The animal is considered as an ancestor or protector of the tribe.
In considering the institutions of “totemism” and “medicine,” we must not forget that savage “medicine” has a function somewhat different from that of medicine in our sense of the word. Some doubt if there be any real distinction between the totem and the medicine.75
Schoolcraft says that among the Sioux a clan81 consists of individuals who use the same roots for medicine, and they are initiated82 into the clan by a great medicine-dance. The Sioux and other tribes make a bag out of the skin of the medicine (totem?) animal, which acts as a talisman43, and is inherited by the son. Here we have an instance of the reverence83 inspired by an inherited medicine. It is a little surprising that we have so few evidences of the worship of healing herbs and drugs.
Demon-worship is the explanation of the mysteries of Dionysus Zagreus and the Chthonic and Bacchic orgies. M. Reclus says: “If we knew nothing otherwise of these orgies, we could obtain a sufficiently84 correct idea of them by visiting the Ghats, the Neilgherries, and the Vindhyas.”76
THE MEDICINE-DANCE OF THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS.
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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amulets
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| n.护身符( amulet的名词复数 ) | |
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imputing
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| v.把（错误等）归咎于( impute的现在分词 ) | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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malice
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| n.恶意，怨恨，蓄意；[律]预谋 | |
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deception
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| n.欺骗，欺诈；骗局，诡计 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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foretell
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| v.预言，预告，预示 | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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solicitude
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| n.焦虑 | |
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distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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divination
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| n.占卜，预测 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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prone
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| adj.(to)易于…的，很可能…的；俯卧的 | |
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implicit
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| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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afflict
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| vt.使身体或精神受痛苦，折磨 | |
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intestines
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| n.肠( intestine的名词复数 ) | |
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torment
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| n.折磨；令人痛苦的东西(人)；vt.折磨；纠缠 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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enchantment
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| n.迷惑，妖术，魅力 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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quartz
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| n.石英 | |
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anthropological
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| adj.人类学的 | |
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boughs
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| 大树枝( bough的名词复数 ) | |
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ward
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| n.守卫，监护，病房，行政区，由监护人或法院保护的人（尤指儿童）；vt.守护，躲开 | |
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saliva
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| n.唾液，口水 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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enchanted
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| adj. 被施魔法的，陶醉的，入迷的 动词enchant的过去式和过去分词 | |
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abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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demons
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| n.恶人( demon的名词复数 )；恶魔；精力过人的人；邪念 | |
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demon
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| n.魔鬼，恶魔 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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talismans
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| n.护身符( talisman的名词复数 )；驱邪物；有不可思议的力量之物；法宝 | |
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talisman
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| n.避邪物，护身符 | |
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vexed
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| adj.争论不休的；（指问题等）棘手的；争论不休的问题；烦恼的v.使烦恼( vex的过去式和过去分词 )；使苦恼；使生气；详细讨论 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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caterpillars
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| n.毛虫( caterpillar的名词复数 )；履带 | |
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herds
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| 兽群( herd的名词复数 )； 牧群； 人群； 群众 | |
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undo
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| vt.解开，松开；取消，撤销 | |
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rogues
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| n.流氓( rogue的名词复数 )；无赖；调皮捣蛋的人；离群的野兽 | |
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instructor
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| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
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buffoon
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| n.演出时的丑角 | |
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omnipotence
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| n.全能，万能，无限威力 | |
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rheumatism
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| n.风湿病 | |
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paralysis
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| n.麻痹(症)；瘫痪(症) | |
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rustics
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| n.有农村或村民特色的( rustic的名词复数 )；粗野的；不雅的；用粗糙的木材或树枝制作的 | |
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asperse
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| v.流言；n.流言 | |
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enchantments
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| n.魅力( enchantment的名词复数 )；迷人之处；施魔法；着魔 | |
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diagnosis
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| n.诊断，诊断结果，调查分析，判断 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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wretch
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| n.可怜的人，不幸的人；卑鄙的人 | |
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devours
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| 吞没( devour的第三人称单数 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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cleanse
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| vt.使清洁，使纯洁，清洗 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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extol
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| v.赞美，颂扬 | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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emetic
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| n.催吐剂；adj.催吐的 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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intoxication
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| n.wild excitement;drunkenness；poisoning | |
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intermittent
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| adj.间歇的，断断续续的 | |
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74
avert
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| v.防止，避免；转移(目光、注意力等) | |
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retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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77
fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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adoration
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| n.爱慕，崇拜 | |
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anthropology
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| n.人类学 | |
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80
clans
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| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
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81
clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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82
initiated
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| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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