Gods of Medicine.
The origin of Greek medicine is intermixed with the Hellenic mythology1. We must begin, not with ?sculapius (Asclepios), but with the sun itself. Apollo (P?an), as the god who visits men with plagues and epidemics2, was also the god who wards3 off evil and affords help to men. He was constantly referred to as “the Healer,” as Alexicacus, the averter of ills. He is the saviour5 from epidemics, and the p?an was sung in his honour (Iliad, I. 473, XXII. 391).
Apollo promoted the health and well-being6 of man, and was the god of prolific7 power, the trainer of youth, and thus he was the chief deity8 of healing. As the god of light and purity he was truly the health-god; and as light penetrates9 the darkness, he was the god of divination10 and the patron of prophecy, acting11 chiefly through women when in a state of ecstasy12. Homer says that P?an329 was the physician of the Olympian gods (Iliad, V. 401, 899).
Next we find Cheiron, the wise and just centaur13 (Iliad, XI. 831), who had been instructed by Apollo and Artemis, and was famous for his skill in medicine. He was the master and instructor14 of the most celebrated15 heroes of Greek story, and he taught the art of healing to ?sculapius (b.c. 1250). This god of medicine was said to be the son of Apollo. Pausanius330 explains the allegory thus: “If Asclepius is the air—indispensable to the health of man and beast, yet Apollo is the sun, and rightly is he called the father of Asclepius, for the sun, by his yearly course, makes the air wholesome16.”
148
In the Homeric poems ?sculapius is not a divinity, but merely a human being. Homer, however, calls all those who practise the art of healing descendants of P?an; his healing god is Apollo, and never ?sculapius.
Legend tells that ?sculapius was the son of Apollo by Coronis, who was killed by Artemis for unfaithfulness, and her body was about to be burnt on the pyre, when Apollo snatched the boy out of the flames and handed him over to the centaur Cheiron, who taught him how to cure all diseases. Pindar tells the story of his instruction in the art of medicine:—
“The rescued child he gave to share
Magnesian Centaur’s fostering care;
Of those whom nature made to feel
All to the great physician came.
By summer’s heat or winter’s cold
Oppressed, of him they sought relief.
And found a balm for every grief.
On some the force of charmed strains he tried,
Some from the trunk he cut, and made the patient sound.”331
It was believed that he was even able to restore the dead to life. According to one tradition, ?sculapius was once shut up in the house of Glaucus, whom he was to cure, and while he was absorbed in thought there came a serpent, which twined round his staff, and which he killed. Then he saw another serpent, which came carrying in its mouth a herb, with which it recalled to life the one that had been killed; and the physician henceforth made use of the same herb to restore dead men to life, the popular belief, even in these early times, evidently being that what would cure serpents would be equally efficacious for men. We may therefore consider the snake-entwined staff of the healing god as the symbol of the early faith in the efficacy of experiments on animals, though in this instance the experiment was on a dead one.
?sculapius was only too successful a practitioner27; for when he was exercising his art upon Glaucus, Zeus killed the physician with a flash of lightning, as he feared that men might gradually escape death altogether. Others say the reason was that Pluto28 complained that by such medical treatment the number of the dead was too much diminished.149 On the request of Apollo, Zeus placed ?sculapius amongst the stars. His wife was Epione (the soother). Homer mentions Podalirius and Machaon as sons of ?sculapius, and the following are also said to have been his sons and daughters—Janiscus, Alexenor, Aratus, Hygeia, ?gle, Iaso, and Panaceia. Most of these, as Hygeia, the goddess of health, and Panaceia, the all-healing, it will be seen, are merely personifications of the powers ascribed to their father. There is no doubt that facts are the basis of the ?sculapian story. The divinity was worshipped all over Greece. His temples were for the most part built in mountainous and healthy places, and as often as possible in the neighbourhood of a medicinal spring; in a sense they became the prototypes of our hospitals and medical schools. Multitudes of sick persons visited them, and the priests found it to their interest to study diseases and their remedies; for though faith and religious fervour may do much for the sick, the art of the physician and the hand of the surgeon are adjuncts by no means to be despised even in a temple clinic. The chief of the ?sculapian temples was at Epidaurus; there no one was permitted to die and no woman to give birth to a child. The connection of the serpent with the divinity probably arose from the idea that serpents represent prudence30 and renovation31, and have the power of discovering the secret virtues32 of healing plants.
The idea of the serpent twined round the rod of ?sculapius is that “as sickness comes from him, from him too must or may come the healing.”332 The knots on the staff are supposed to symbolize33 the many knotty34 points which arise in the practice of physic.
Minerva was the patroness of all the arts and trades; at her festivals she was invoked35 by all who desired to distinguish themselves in medicine, as well as by the patients whom they failed to cure. As the goddess of intelligence and inventiveness, she was the Greek patroness of physicians, and was the same deity as Pallas Athene, who bestows37 health and keeps off sickness.
Artemis, or Diana, as the Romans called the Greek goddess, was a deity who, inviolate38 and vigorous herself, granted health and strength to others. She was the sister of Apollo, and though a dispenser of life could, like her brother, send death and disease amongst men and animals. Sudden deaths, especially amongst women, were described as the effect of her arrows. She was θε? σ?τειρα, who assuaged40 the sufferings of mortals. When ?neas was wounded, she healed him in the temple of Apollo.333 Yet Artemis ταυροπ?λο? produced madness in the minds of men.334
150
She was the Cretan Diktynna, and that goddess wore a wreath of the magic plant diktamnon or dictamnus, called by us dittany (dictamnus ruber, or albus); it grows in abundance on Mounts Dicté and Ida in Crete.
The Cretan goddess Britomartis was sometimes identified with Artemis. She too was a goddess of health as also of birth, and was supposed to dispense39 happiness to mortals.
Bacchus, or, as he was called by the Greeks, Dionysus, as the god of wine, and an inspired and an inspiring deity, who revealed the future by oracles41, cured diseases by discovering to sufferers in their dreams their appropriate remedies. The prophet, the priest, and the physician are so often blended in one in the early history of civilization, that the same ideas naturally clustered round Bacchus as around Apollo, and other great benefactors42 of mankind. The giver of vines and wine was the dispenser of the animating43, exalting44, intoxicating45 powers of nature. As wine restores the flagging energies of the body and mind, and seems to have the power of calling back to life the departing spirit, and inspiring the languishing46 vitality47 of man, Bacchus would naturally enough be a god of medicine. The intoxicating properties of wine would be connected with inspiration, and so Bacchus had a share in the oracles of Delphi and Amphicleia. He was invoked as a θε?? σωτ?ρ against raging diseases.
Ammon was an Ethiopian divinity whose worship spread over Egypt, and thence to Greece, and was described as the spirit pervading48 the universe, and as the author of all life in nature.
Hermes Trismegistus of the Greeks was identified in the time of Plato with Thoth, Thot, or Theut of the Egyptians.335
The Egyptian Thoth was considered the father of all knowledge, and everything committed to writing was looked upon as his property; he was therefore the embodied49 eek: λ?γο?, and so τρ?? μ?γιστο?, or the superlatively greatest. He was identified by the Greeks more or less completely with their own Hermes, or Mercury as he was known to the Romans; he was the messenger of the gods; as dreams are sent by Zeus, it was his office to convey them to men, and he had power to grant refreshing50 sleep or to deny the blessing51. As the gods revealed the remedies for sickness in dreams, Hermes became a god of medicine.
Thoth, the ibis-headed, was the Egyptian god of letters, the deity of wisdom in general, who aided Horus in his conflict with Seth, and recorded the judgments53 of the dead before Osiris. Hermes κριοφ?ρο?, the averter of diseases, was worshipped in B?otia. Hermes, the Greek151 deity, was king of the dead and the conductor of souls to their future home. Probably, therefore, we may rightly look upon Thoth, Hermes, and Hermes Trismegistus as the same person. By many Thoth is considered to be the Egyptian ?sculapius, as he was the inventor of the healing art; the Ph?nician god Esmun, one of the ancient Cabiri, was invested with similar attributes, and was worshipped at Carthage and Berytus. The authorship of the oldest Egyptian works on medicine is ascribed to Thoth. These were engraved54 on pillars of stone. The works of Thoth were ultimately incorporated into the so-called “Hermetic Books.” Clement55 of Alexandria, who is our only ancient authority on these Hermetic works, says they were forty-two in number.
Prometheus (the man of freethought) is considered by ?schylus as the founder56 of human civilization.
?schylus, in his Prometheus Chained, makes the god say how he had taught each useful art to man. As regards medicine, he says:—
What useful arts, what science I invented.
This first and greatest; when the fell disease
Nor healing drug, nor cool, refreshing draught,
To mix the balmy medicine, of power
Melampus, who was famous for his prophetic powers, was believed by the Greeks to have been the first mortal who practised the art of medicine, and established the worship of Dionysus in Greece. As doctors are frequently expected to exercise the art of prophecy in conjunction with their profession, it is unfortunate that we have retrograded from the Melampian type. The eminent62 physician who tells the over-inquisitive friends of his patients that he is “a doctor and not a prophet,” might be answered that originally the two functions were combined. Melampus taught the Greeks to mix their wine with water. He is fabled64 to have learned the language of the birds from some young serpents who had been reared by him, and who licked his ears when he was asleep. When he awoke he found that he understood what the birds said, and that he could foretell65 the future.
Iphiclus had no children, and he asked Melampus to tell him how he could become a father. He advised him to take the rust66 from a knife, and drink it in water during ten days. The remedy was eminently67 successful, and is the first instance in which a preparation of iron is known to have been prescribed in medicine. He cured the daughters152 of Pr?tus by giving them hellebore (which has been called Melampodium by botanists), and he received the eldest68 of the princesses in marriage. He cured the women of Argos of a severe distemper which made them insane, and the king showed his gratitude69 by giving him part of his kingdom. He received divine honours after his death, and temples were raised to him.
The Medicine of Homer.
As Homer is supposed to have lived about 850 b.c., a study of such references as are to be found in the Iliad and Odyssey70 which relate to medicine and surgery will throw an important light on the state of the healing art as it was practised at that early period of Greek history.
There is little mention of disease in Homer. We read of sudden death, pestilence71, and the troubles of old age, but there is hardly any fixed72 morbid73 condition noticed.
Although the poet exhibits considerable acquaintance with medical lore74, and the human body in health and disease, he could have had little or no acquaintance with anatomy75, because amongst Greeks, as amongst Jews, it was considered a profanation76 to dissect77 or mutilate the human corpse78.
It was not till the rise of the Alexandrian school in the golden age of the Ptolemies that this sentiment was overcome. Still Homer must have known that it was the custom of the Egyptians to embalm79 their dead, as he refers to the process in the Iliad,337 where Thetis poured into the nostrils80 of the corpse red nectar and ambrosia81 to preserve it from putrefaction82. Ambrosia is referred to by Virgil as useful for healing wounds, and nectar was supposed to preserve flesh from decay. Homer’s heroes seem to have been singularly healthy folk; their only demand for the services of the army surgeons arose from the accidents of war. Machaon distinguished83 himself in surgery, and Podalirius is reputed to have been the first phlebotomist. Their services would be chiefly required for extracting arrow-heads and spear-heads, checking h?morrhage by compression and styptic applications, and laying soothing ointments84 on wounded and bruised85 surfaces. Beyond these minor86 duties of the army surgeon, we find little record of their work. Mention is not made of amputations, of setting of fractures, or tying of arteries87. Wounds were probed by Machaon, surgeon to Menelaus (Book IV.).
Whatever may have been the surgical88 skill of Machaon, we have proof that the art of dieting the wounded was not at all understood in the Homeric days. The wine and cheese was not the kind of refreshment89 which found favour in Plato’s time with the Greek physicians.153 Plato, in the Republic (Book III.), deals with the question at some length. He says that the draught of Pramnian wine with barley90 meal and cheese was an inflammatory mixture, and a strange potion for a man in the state of Eurypylus.
But he excuses the sons of Asclepius for their treatment, explaining that their method was not intended for coddling invalids91, but for such as had not time to be ill, and that the healing art was revealed for the benefit of those whose constitutions were naturally sound, and that doctors used to expel their disorders93 by drugs and the use of the knife without interrupting their customary avocations94, declining altogether to assist chronic95 invalids to protract96 a miserable97 existence by a studied regimen.
Le Clerc says338 that Plato is wrong in this explanation of the Homeric treatment, and that the true one is that in those days the dietary of the sick was not understood. Modern medicine will decline to accept either theory. The fact is, Homer’s physicians were right. Good old wine was the best thing possible to restore a man fainting from the loss of blood; as for the cheese it was grated fine, and therefore was a peculiarly nutritious99 food in a fairly digestible condition. The barley water at all times was at least irreproachable100. Although there is little evidence in the Homeric poems of any medical treatment which passes the limits of surgery, this is by no means conclusive101 against the possession of the higher art by Podalirius. In an epic102 poem, as Le Clerc points out, the subject is altogether too exalted103 to admit of medical discourses105 on the treatment of colic and diarrh?a.
Neither must we be surprised, that when the pestilence appeared in the camp of Agamemnon, Podalirius and Machaon did nothing to avert4 it. Such a disease was at that time considered beyond all human skill, and as the direct visitation of the gods. Homer clearly explains that the pestilence was due to their anger. Galen adduces evidence to prove that ?sculapius did really practise medicine, by music and by gymnastics, or exercises on foot and horseback.
As Le Clerc says,339 this may have been patriotic106 exaggeration on the part of Galen. To Podalirius is attributed the invention of the art of bleeding. As he returned from the Trojan war, he was driven by a tempest on the shores of Caria, where a shepherd, having learned that he was a physician, took him to the king, whose daughter was sick. He cured her by bleeding from both arms; the king gave her to him in marriage, with a rich grant of land. This is the oldest example which we have of bleeding.
Podalirius had a son Hippolochus, of whom the great Hippocrates was154 a descendant. Le Clerc devotes a chapter of his History of Medicine to reflections on the antiquity107 of the practice of venesection, and speculates on the manner of its discovery. He says, the fact that Homer is silent on the subject makes neither for nor against the theory that it was known in his time; in such works as those of the poet he was under no obligation to specify108 particularly the remedies employed by the doctors. He speaks, for example, of soothing medicines and bitter roots without further definition. It would be as reasonable to agree that purgation was unknown from Homer’s silence on the matter.
Homer knew something of the parts of the body where wounds are most fatal. He says (Book IV., l. 183), “The arrow fell in no such place as death could enter at,” and (Book VIII., l. 326), where the arrow struck the right shoulder ’twixt the neck and breast, “the wound was wondrous109 full of death.”
He knew much of drugs and medicinal plants: φ?ρμακον (pharmakon) in the Iliad is a remedy, an unguent or application, and is mentioned nine times; in the Odyssey it is a drug or medicinal herb, and is referred to twenty times. In Book XI., Eurypylus, when wounded, is treated with the “wholesome onion,” a potion is confected with good old wine of Pramnius, with scraped goat’s-milk cheese and fine flour mixed with it. Later on in the same book, we read of the bruised, bitter, pain-assuaging root being applied to a wound; it was some strong astringent110 bitter plant, probably a species of geranium.
Then in the Odyssey (Book IV. 200) occurs the reference to nepenthe, a drug which has puzzled commentators111 exceedingly; some say it was poppy juice, others hashish; we have also the magic moly, which Mercury gave to Ulysses against the charms of Circe. By some this is thought to have been the unpoetical garlic, by others to be wild rue98, such as Josephus refers to. It was more probably the mandrake.
There is a very curious and important reference to sulphur, as a disinfectant fumigation113 in the Odyssey (Book XXII. 481):—
“She hears, and at the word obedient flies,
Homer several times refers to Machaon:—
“And great Machaon to the ships convey.
A wise physician, skilled our wounds to heal,
Is more than armies to the public weal.”
(Iliad, XI. 614.)
155
With Podalirius, his brother, also a “famed surgeon,” he went to Troy with thirty ships. Homer calls them “divine professors of the healing arts” (Iliad, II. 728), and to them was committed the care of the medical work of the expedition.
When Menelaus had been wounded by the spear of Pandarus, Machaon, we are told by Homer (Iliad, IV. 218)—
“Sucked the blood, and sovereign balm infused,
Which Cheiron gave, and ?sculapius used.”
Agamede is referred to by Homer (Iliad, XI. 739) as acquainted with the healing properties of all the plants that grow on the earth. She was a daughter of Augeias, and wife of Mulius. The poet refers to her as—
“She that all simples’ healing virtues knew,
And every herb that drinks the morning dew.”340
Hesiod lived about the same time as Homer. He wrote the famous Works and Days, a species of farmer’s calendar, and the Theogony.
On account of the knowledge he possessed121 of the properties of plants, Theophrastus, Pliny, and others ranked him amongst the physicians.341
Both Podalirius and Machaon were held in great honour, not only as combatants, but as medical advisers122, and Homer’s account of them exhibits the medical profession of his time as one that was very highly esteemed123. In the fragment of Arctinus which remains124 to us, we find thus early the distinction made between the arts of medicine and surgery, the two principal divisions of medical science: “Then Asclepius bestowed125 the power of healing upon his two sons; nevertheless, he made one of the two more celebrated than the other; on one did he bestow36 the lighter126 hand, that he might draw missiles from the flesh, and sew up and heal all wounds; but he other he endowed with great precision of mind, so as to understand what cannot be seen, and to heal seemingly incurable127 diseases.”342
This very interesting extract not only shows the early separation of the arts of medicine and surgery, but it exhibits very clearly how it arose that the former was always held to be the higher branch of the medical profession. To sew up a laceration, or extract an arrow or a thorn from the flesh, demanded only manual dexterity129; but “to understand that which cannot be seen,” and heal internal organs that cannot even be touched, required a skill and a mental precision that men even in those early times were able to appreciate as much the higher of the156 two arts. There seems, however, some confusion of the two branches in the lines:—
“A wise physician, skilled our wounds to heal,
Is more than armies to the public weal.”
If we suppose that the account of venesection which attributes its discovery to Podalirius is fabulous130, this would only serve to prove the antiquity of the practice. Hippocrates is said to be the first medical writer who has spoken of bleeding,343 yet we must not suppose it was unknown before his time. He advises blood-letting from the arm, from the temporal vessels131, from the leg, etc., in some cases even to fainting. He is familiar with cupping and other methods of abstracting blood; it is not probable, therefore, that the operation was a new one in his day.
The discovery of the practice of purging132 as a remedy was attributed to Melampus. But we know that the Egyptians made use of purgative133 and emetic134 medicines. There were many purgatives135 in use in the time of Hippocrates, as hellebore, elaterium, colocynth, and scammony. All these medicines could not have been discovered at once, as Le Clerc points out; mankind, therefore, must have gradually acquired their use. When persons were overloaded136 in the stomach and constipated, nothing was more natural than that they should seek relief by removing the mechanical causes of their distress137. Some one had taken some herb which had caused him to vomit138 or to be purged, and had experienced the benefit of the evacuation; he told his friends, and they perhaps had been aided by similar means. Or again, some illness had been alleviated139 by the supervention of diarrh?a, and art was called in to imitate the beneficial effect of nature’s cure. In this way, says Le Clerc, bleeding may reasonably have been discovered: a severe headache is often relieved by bleeding from the nose, what more natural than that the process of relief should be imitated by opening a vein140?
Pliny, indeed, in his usual manner, introduces a fable63 to account for the discovery of venesection. He says344 that the hippopotamus141 having become too fat and unwieldy through over-eating, bled himself with a sharp-pointed142 reed, and when he had drawn143 sufficient blood, closed the wound with clay. Men have imitated the operation, says Pliny. This is matched by the story of the ibis with her long bill being the inventor of the clyster. Most of the medical beast stories are probably on a level with these.
157
Hygeia, the wife of ?sculapius, and her children, bore names which show the same poetic112 fancy as that which constituted Apollo the author of medicine. ?sculapius is the air. Hygeia is health; ?gle is brightness or splendour, because the air is illumined and purified by the sun. Iaso is recovery, Panacea144 the universal medicine, Roma is strength.
The ancients everywhere believed that the healing art was taught to mankind by the gods. “The art of medicine,” says Cicero, “has been consecrated145 by the invention of the immortal146 gods.”345
Hippocrates346 attributed the art of medicine to the Supreme147 Being. As the Greeks believed that the arts in general were invented by the gods, it was a natural belief that the knowledge of medicine should have been taught by the heavenly powers. The mysteries of life, disease, and death were peculiarly the province of supernatural beings, and man has ever attributed to such powers all those things which he could not comprehend.
The Temples of ?sculapius.
The worship of Asclepius or ?sculapius is so closely associated with the practice of Greek medicine that it is impossible to understand the one without knowing something of the other. Sick persons made pilgrimages to the temples of the god of healing, just as now they go to Lourdes, St. Winifred’s Well, or other famous Christian148 shrines149 for the recovery of their health. After prayers to the god, ablutions, and sacrifices, the patient was put to sleep on the skin of the animal offered at the altar, or at the foot of the statue of the divinity, while the priests performed their sacred rites150. In his sleep he would have pointed out to him in a dream what he ought to do for the recovery of his health. Sometimes the appropriate medicine would be suggested, but more commonly rules of conduct and diet would suffice. When the cure took place, which very frequently happened by suggestion as in modern hypnotism, and by the stimulus151 to the nervous system consequent upon the journey, and the hope excited in the patient, a record of the case and the cure was carved on the temple walls. Thus were recorded the first histories of cases, and their study afforded the most valuable treatises153 on the healing art to the physicians who studied them. The priests of ?sculapius were sometimes called Asclepiads, but they did not themselves act as physicians, nor were they the actual founders154 of Greek medicine. The true Asclepiads were healers and not priests. Anathemata (?ν?θεμα, anything offered up) were offerings of models in gold, silver, etc., of diseased legs, feet, etc., or of deformed155 limbs consecrated158 to the gods in the temples by the devotion of the patients who had received benefit from the prayers to the deities156 who were worshipped therein. The priests of the temples sold these again and again to fresh patients.
The Early Ionic Philosophers.
The various schools of Greek philosophy were intimately associated with the study of medicine. They endeavoured to fathom157 the mystery of life, and the relationship of the visible order of things to the unseen world. The philosophers were therefore not only physicists158, but metaphysicians, and the unhappy science of medicine, a homeless wanderer, had to shelter herself now with the natural philosophers and again with the metaphysicians. Probably the philosophers never really practised physic, but merely speculated about it, as did Plato. A brief notice of the various philosophers of the Ionic, Italian, Eleatic, and Materialistic159 schools who were more or less associated with the study of medicine must suffice as an introduction to Greek medicine proper, which had its origin with Hippocrates.
Thales of Miletus (about 609 b.c.), the Ionian philosopher, introduced Egyptian and Asiatic science into Greece. He had probably in his travels in the land of the Pharaohs devoted160 himself to mathematical pursuits, and if not a scientific inquirer was a deep speculator on the origin of things. He held that everything arises from water, and everything ultimately again resolves itself into water. Everything, he said, is full of gods; the soul originates motion (the magnet has a soul, according to him), and so the indwelling power or soul of water produces the phenomena161 of the natural world. He must not, however, be understood as teaching the doctrine162 of the Soul of the Universe, or of a Creating Deity. Thales was the first writer on physics and the founder of the philosophy of Greece. Le Clerc connects him with medicine by his converse163 with the priest-physicians of Egypt, and that he had performed certain expiatory164 or purifying ceremonies for the Laced?monians which could only be done by such as were divines and physicians.347
Pherecydes, the Syrian, a philosopher who lived about the same time as Thales, is said by Galen to have written upon diet.
Epimenedes was a sort of Greek Rip Van Winkle, who purified Athens in the time of a plague by means of mysterious rites and sacrifices. He excelled as a fasting man, so that he was said to have been exempt165 from the ordinary necessities of nature, and could send out his soul from his body and recall it like the Mahatmas. He was of the159 class of priestly bards166, a seer and prophet who was well acquainted with the virtues of plants for medicinal purposes, and as he was believed to have gone to sleep in a cave for fifty-seven years, he was credited with the possession of supernatural medicinal powers.348
Anaximander, born b.c. 610, is said to have been a pupil of Thales. He taught that a single determinate substance having a middle nature between water and air was the infinite, everlasting167, and divine, though not intelligent material from which all things had their origin. This he called the ?πειρον, the chaos168. All substances were derived169 thence by the conflict of heat and cold and the electric affinities170 of the particles. The atomic theory is foreshadowed here.
Anaximenes was the friend of Thales and Anaximander, and all three were born at Miletus. He considered that air was the first cause of all things, or primary condition of matter; all finite things were formed from the infinite air by compression or rarefaction produced by eternal motion. Heat and cold are produced by the varying density171 of the primal172 element. He held the eternity173 of matter like his brother philosophers, and believed that the soul itself is merely a form of air. He held no Divine Author of the Universe, motion being a necessary law of the universe, and with motion and air he required nothing else for the constitution of all things.
Heracleitus of Ephesus, born about 556 b.c., embodied his system of philosophy in his work On Nature. He held that the ground of all phenomena is a physical principle, a living unity174, pervading everything, inherent in all things—fire, that is, as he explains, a clear light fluid “self-kindled and self-extinguished.” The world was not created by God, but evolved from the rational intelligence which guides the universe—fire. Fire longs to manifest itself in various forms; from its pure state in heaven it descends175, assumes the form of earth, passing in its progress through that of water. Man’s soul is a spark of the divine fire.
Anaxagoras, born about 499 b.c., was the friend of Pericles and Euripides at Athens. Seeking to explain the world and man by a higher cause than the physical ones of his predecessors176, he postulated177 nous—that is, mind, thought, or intelligence. As nothing can come out of nothing, he did not attribute to this nous the creation of the world, but only its order and arrangement. Matter is eternal, but existed as chaos till nous evolved order from the confusion. Baas349 says his physiological178 and pathological views may be thus described:160 “The animal body, by means of a kind of affinity179, appropriates to itself from the nutritive supply the portions similar to itself. Males originate in the right, females in the left side of the uterus. Diseases are occasioned by the bile which penetrates into the blood-vessels, the lungs, and the pleura.” He undertook the dissection180 of animals, remarked the existence in the brain of the lateral181 ventricles, and was the first to declare that the bile is the cause of acute sickness.350
Diogenes of Apollonia, the eminent natural philosopher, lived at Athens about 460 b.c. He was a pupil of Anaximenes, and wrote a work entitled On Nature, in which he treated of physical science generally. Aristotle has preserved for us some of the few fragments which remain. The most important is the description of the origin and distribution of the veins182, and is inserted in the third book of Aristotle’s History of Animals. Diogenes Laertius gives an account of the philosophical183 teaching of the philosopher: “He maintained that air was the primal element of all things; that there was an infinite number of worlds, and an infinite void; that air, densified and rarefied, produced the different members of the universe; that nothing was produced from nothing, or was reduced to nothing; that the earth was round, supported in the middle, and had received its shape from the whirling round of the warm vapours, and its concretion and hardening from cold.”351
Diogenes recognised no distinction between mind and matter, yet he considered air possessed intellectual energy.
We find in this philosopher many indications that the vascular184 system was in some degree beginning to be understood.352 Mr. Lewes and Mr. Grote agree that Diogenes deserves a higher place in the evolution of philosophy than either Hegel or Schwegler.
Empedocles of Agrigentum, born about 490 b.c., now bears forward the flaming torch of medical science, and in his hands it burns more brightly still. Aristotle mentions him among the Ionian physiologists185, and ranks him with the atomistic philosophers and Anaxagoras. These all sought to discover the basis of all changes and to explain them. According to Empedocles: “There are four ultimate kinds of things, four primal divinities, of which are made all structures in the world—fire, air, water, and earth. These four elements are eternally brought into union, and eternally parted from each other, by two divine beings or powers, love and hatred—an attractive and a repulsive186 force which the ordinary eye can see working amongst men, but which really pervade187 the whole world. According to the different proportions in which these four indestructible and unchangeable matters are combined with161 each other is the difference of the organic structure produced; e.g., flesh and blood are made of equal parts of all four elements, whereas bones are one-half fire, one-fourth earth, and one-fourth water. It is in the aggregation188 and segregation189 of elements thus arising that Empedocles, like the atomists, finds the real process which corresponds to what is popularly termed growth, increase, or decrease. Nothing new comes or can come into being; the only change that can occur is a change in the juxtaposition190 of element with element.”353
He considered that men, animals, and plants are demons191 punished by banishment192, but who, becoming purified, may regain193 the home of the gods. It is hardly necessary to say that he held the demoniacal possession theory of disease, and treated all complaints by means appropriate to the theory. Anticipating the modern opinions of the bacteriologists, he banished194 epidemics by building great fires and draining the water from marshy195 lands. He understood something of the causes of infectious diseases, and in their treatment usurped196 the province of the gods who had sent them.354 He believed the embryo197 was nourished through the navel. We owe to him the terms amnion and chorion (i.e., the innermost and outer membranes198 with which the f?tus is surrounded in the womb). He believed that death was caused by extinction199 of heat, that expiration200 arose from the upward motion of the blood, and inspiration from the reverse. He is said to have raised a dead woman to life.355
Empedocles believed in the doctrine of re-incarnation. “I well remember,” he says, “the time before I was Empedocles, that I once was a boy, then a girl, a plant, a glittering fish, a bird that cut the air.” To his disciples201 he said: “By my instructions you shall learn medicines that are powerful to cure disease, and re-animate old age—you shall recall the strength of the dead man, when he has already become the victim of Pluto.”356 Further speaking of himself, he says: “I am revered203 by both men and women, who follow me by ten thousands, inquiring the road to boundless204 wealth, seeking the gift of prophecy, and who would learn the marvellous skill to cure all kinds of diseases.”357
The School of the Pythagoreans at Crotona.
Although in ancient Greece the art of medicine, as we have already shown, was closely connected with the temples, if not actually with religion, its entanglement205 with philosophy was a scarcely less unfortunate connection, and it was not able to make any real progress till162 Hippocrates liberated206 it from both priests and philosophers. 582 years before Christ Pythagoras was born, the ideal hero or saint whom we faintly discern through the mythical207 haze208 which has always enveloped209 him. Philosopher, prophet, wonder-worker, and physician, he gathered into his mind as into a focus the wisdom of the Brahmans, the Persian Magi, the Egyptians, the Ph?nicians, the Chald?ans, the Jews, the Arabians, and the Druids of Gaul, amongst whom he had travelled, if we may believe what is reported of him. He may have visited Egypt,358 at any rate, besides acquainting himself with the countries of the Mediterranean210. His authentic211 history begins with his emigration to Crotona, in South Italy, about the year 529. There he founded a kind of religious brotherhood212 or ethical-reform society, and “appeared as the revealer of a mode of life calculated to raise his disciples above the level of mankind, and to recommend them to the favour of the gods.”359 Grote believes that the removal to Crotona was prompted by the desire to study medicine in its famous school, probably combined with the notion of instructing the pupils in his philosophy. He rendered great services to the healing art by insisting on the necessity of a thorough comprehension of the organs, structure, and functions of the body in their normal, healthy condition; this must be conceded, though his visionary philosophy did much to destroy the scientific value of his medical teaching.
The founder of the healing art amongst the Greeks and Hellenic peoples generally was Pythagoras. He was imbued213 with Eastern mysticism, teaching that the air is full of spiritual beings, who send dreams to men and cause to men and cattle disease and health. He taught that these spirits must be conciliated by lustrations and invocations. Pliny says360 that he taught that holding dill (anethum) in the hand is good against epilepsy. The health of the body is to be maintained by diet and gymnastics. It is interesting to find that this great philosopher recommended music to restore the harmony of the spirits. Besides the magic virtues of the dill, he held that many other plants possessed them, such as the cabbage (a food in great favour with the Pythagoreans), the squill, and anise. He held that surgery was not to be practised, as it is unlawful, but salves and poultices were to be permitted. His disciples attributed the union between medicine and philosophy to him.
The Pythagorean philosophy turns upon the idea of numbers and the mathematical relations of things. “All things are number;” “number is the essence of everything.” The world subsists214 by the principle of ordered numbers. The spheres revolve215 harmoniously216; the163 seven planets are the seven golden chords of the heavenly heptachord. As a corollary to this notion we have the theory of opposites. We have the odd and even, and their combinations. The even is the unlimited217, the odd the limited; so all things are derived from the combination of the limited and the unlimited. Then we get the limited and the unlimited, the odd and the even, the one and many, right and left, masculine and feminine, rest and motion, straight and crooked218, light and darkness, good and evil, square and oblong. When opposites unite, there is harmony. The number ten comprehends all other numbers in itself; four was held in great respect, because it is the first square number and the potential decade (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10). Pythagoras was the discoverer of the holy τετρακτ??, “the fountain and root of ever-living nature.” Five signifies marriage, one is reason because unchangeable, two is opinion, seven is called παρθ?νο? and ?θ?νη, because within the decade it has neither factors nor product.361
The doctrine of transmigration of souls, metempsychosis, is Pythagoras’s. He probably borrowed it from the Orphic mysteries; originally no doubt it came from Asia. Asceticism219, mysticism, and Neoplatonism sprang from this noble and lofty philosophy. Closely connected with his theory of numbers he held that from these points are produced, from these lines, from lines figures, and from figures solid bodies. The elements fire, water, earth, and air, account in his conception for the formation of the world. He understood the structure of the body, its procreation and development. He believed that the animal soul is an emanation from the world-soul; the universal soul is God, author of himself. Demons are an order of beings between the highest and the lowest. Striving for the good brings moral health. Bodily health means harmony, disease means discord220. Diseases are caused by demons, and are to be dispelled221 by prayers, offerings, and music. He first among the Greeks taught the immortality222 of the soul; he held a doctrine of rewards and punishments, and taught that of metempsychosis. For many succeeding ages the Pythagorean doctrine had the greatest influence on the art of medicine.362
Le Clerc says that Pythagoras obtained his ideas of the climacteric years from the Chald?ans. The term is applied to the seventh year of the life of man, and it was anciently believed that at each change we incur128 some risk to life or health, on account of the bodily changes undergone at that time.363 Celsus says that the medical sentiment with164 respect to the septenary number in diseases, and that of the odd and even days, is of Pythagorean origin.364 The Pythagoreans had a great respect for the number four. The quaternary number was sacred to the Egyptians; they burned in the temples of Isis a kind of resinous223 gum, myrrh, and other drugs, in the preparation of which they had regard to the number four. The Israelites imitated them in this respect (Exod. xxx. 2).365
The sacred bean of Pythagoras was the object of religious veneration224 in Egypt; the priests were commanded not to look upon it. It is thought to have been the East Indian Nelumbium.366
Zamolxis, who was a god to the Getans, is supposed by some to have been a slave and disciple202 of Pythagoras; by others he is considered an altogether mythical personage. He is credited by those who believe him to have been a physician with having said that “A man could not cure the eyes without curing the head, nor the head without all the rest of the body, nor the body without the soul.” Plato said much the same thing when he remarked, “To cure a headache you must treat the whole man.” Zamolxis cured the soul, not by the enchantments225 of magic, but by wise discourse104 and reasonable conversation. “These discourses,” said Plato, “produce wisdom in the soul, which having once been acquired it is easy after that to procure226 health both for the head and all the rest of the body.”
Democedes was a celebrated physician of Crotona, in Magna Grecia, who lived in the sixth century b.c. He went to practise at ?gina, where he received from the public treasury227 a sum equal to about ￡344 a year for his services. The next year he went to Athens at a salary equal to ￡406, and the following year he went to the island of Samos. The tyrant228 Polycrates gave him the salary of two talents. He was carried prisoner to Susa to the court of Darius, where he acquired a great reputation and much wealth by curing the king’s foot and the breast of the queen. It is recorded that Darius ordered the surgeons who had failed to cure him to be put to death, but Democedes interceded229 for and saved them. He ultimately escaped to Crotona, where he settled, the Persians having in vain demanded his return.367 He wrote a work on medicine.
Democritus, of Abdera, was a contemporary of Socrates; he was born between 494 and 460 b.c., and was one of the founders of the Atomic philosophy. He was profoundly versed230 in all the knowledge of his time. So ardent231 a student was he, that he once said that he preferred the discovery of a true cause to the possession of the kingdom of165 Persia. The highest object of scientific investigation232 he held to be the discovery of causes. He wrote on medicine, and devoted himself zealously233 to the study of anatomy and physiology234. Pliny says that he composed a special treatise152 on the structure of the chameleon235.368 He wrote on canine236 rabies, and on the influence of music in the treatment of disease. He is, however, best known to science on account of his cosmical theory. All that exists is vacuum and atoms. The atoms are the ultimate material of all things, even of spirit. They are uncaused and eternal, invisible, yet extended, heavy and impenetrable. They are in constant motion, and have been so from all eternity. By their motion the world and all it contains was produced. Soul and fire are of the same nature, of small, smooth, round atoms, and it is by inhaling237 and exhaling238 these that life is maintained. The soul perishes with the body. He rejected all theology and popular mythology. Reason had nothing to do with the creation of the world, and he said, “There is nothing true; and if there is, we do not know it.” “We know nothing, not even if there is anything to know.” He died in great honour, yet in poverty, at an advanced age (some writers say at 109 years). His knowledge of nature, and especially of medicine, caused him to be considered a sorcerer and a magician. There was a tradition that he deprived himself of his sight in order to be undisturbed in his intellectual speculations239. He probably became blind by too close attention to study. Another story was that he was considered to be insane, and Hippocrates was sent for to cure him.
The great philosophers of ancient Greece believed that all the elements are modifications240 of one common substance, called the primary matter, which they demonstrated to be devoid241 of all quality and form, but susceptible242 of all qualities and forms. It is everything in capacity, but nothing in actuality. Matter is eternal; the elements are the first matter arranged into certain distinguishing forms. Some of the early philosophers held that all the materials which compose the universe existed in a fluid form; they understood by fire, matter in a highly refined state, and that it is the element most intimately connected with life, some even considering it the very essence of the soul. “Our souls are fire,” says Phornutus. “What we call heat is immortal,” says one of the Hippocratic writers, “and understands, sees, and hears all things that are or will be.”369
Bacon explains the ancient fable of Proteus as signifying matter, a something which, being below all forms and supporting them, is yet different from them all.
166
Sir Isaac Newton is not widely different from Strabo when he says that all bodies may be convertible243 into one another.
Commenting upon these opinions of the Greek philosophers, Dr. Adams says, in his introduction to the works of Hippocrates:370 “If every step which we advance in the knowledge of the intimate structure of things leads us to contract the number of substances formerly244 held to be simple, I would not wonder if it should yet turn out that oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are—like what the ancients held the elements to be—all nothing else but different modifications of one ever-changing matter.”
The theories of the Greek philosophers on the elements are poetically245 summed up in Ovid’s Metamorphoses:—
Nor to this figure nor to that are ty’d:
For this eternal world is said of old
But four prolific principles to hold,
And other two down to the centre tend.
Fire first, with wings expanded, mounts on high,
Pure, void of weight, and dwells in upper sky;
Then air, because unclogged, in empty space
Flies after fire, and claims the second place;
But weighty water, as her nature guides,
All things are mixed of these, which all contain,
And into these are all resolved again;
Earth rarifies to dew; expanding more,
The subtle dew in air begins to soar;
Spreads as she flies, and, weary of the name,
Extenuates249 still, and changes into flame.
Thus having by degrees perfection won,
Mixed with gross air, and air descends in dew!
And dew condensing, does her form forego,
And sinks, a heavy lump of earth, below.
Thus are their figures never at a stand,
But changed by Nature’s innovating252 hand.”371
Greek Theories of Disease.
As the Greeks believed that all diseases were the consequences of the anger of the gods, it was in their temples that cures were most likely to take place. Faith was the sine qua non in the patient, and everything about the temple and its ceremonies was calculated to167 excite religious awe253 and to stimulate254 faith. Preliminary purifications, fasting, massage255, and fomentations with herbs, were necessary parts of the initiatory256 ceremonies, and the imagination was excited by everything that the sufferer saw around him. He heard the stories of the marvellous cures which had taken place at the sacred fane. Tablets round the walls, placed there by grateful worshippers who had been cured in the past,372 served to fill the mind with hope, when, as was the practice, the patient lay down in the holy place by the image of the healing god, that in the incubatory sleep the remedies which were to cure him might be revealed. Sometimes no such revelation was vouchsafed257, then sacrifices and prayers were offered; if these failed, the priests themselves would appear in the mask and the dress of the healing god, and in the darkness and mystery of the night reveal the necessary prescriptions258. To interpret the dreams was the task of the priests at all times, just as it was in the temples of ancient Egypt. Divination, magic, and astrology largely assisted in the work of discovering the requisite259 remedies. If all failed, it was due not to any defect on the part of the divinity or his servants, but simply to the want of faith on the part of the patient. The festivals of ?sculapius were called Asclepia, and the presiding priests of the healing god were named Asclepiades. The schools of the Asclepiades were a sort of medical guild260, and their doctrines261 were divided into exoteric and esoteric. They naturally became possessed of a great body of medical teaching, which was preserved as a precious secret and handed down from generation to generation. The Asclepiad? thus became the hereditary262 physicians of Greece. Medicine at this period was not a science to be taught to all comers, but was a mystery to be orally transmitted. These men pretended to be descendants of ?sculapius, just as now the imitators of medicines, perfumes,168 etc., which have become celebrated, give out that they belong to the family of the inventor, and thus know the secrets of the preparation.373
This professional class was quite distinct from the priests of the ?sculapian temples, though many writers have confused them. Probably the truth is this:—Certain students from reading the votive tablets in the temples, and examining the persons who came to be cured, gave their attention to the art of medicine, and established themselves as physicians in the neighbourhood of the temples; for it does not appear that the priests themselves pretended to medical skill. They were the instruments of the divine revelation, the mediums of the healing power of the god; they suggested remedies, but did not attempt their application or the treatment of cases. In process of time the pilgrims to the temples would require human aid to supplement the often disappointing divine assistance, and this the Asclepiad? were appointed to supply. Hypnotism was probably practised; music, and such drugs as hemlock263 were also employed which soothe29 the nervous system and relieve pain. The Asclepiad? took careful notes of the symptoms and progress of each case, and were particular to observe the effect of the treatment prescribed; they became, in consequence, exceedingly skilful264 in prognosis. Galen says that little attention was paid to dietetics265 by the Asclepiads; but Strabo speaks of the knowledge which Hippocrates derived from the documents in the Asclepion of Cos.374 Exercise, especially on horseback, was one of the measures used by the Asclepiads for restoring the health.375
Schools of the Asclepiades.
The three most famous schools of the Asclepiades were those of Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidos. There were also that of Crotona, in Lower Italy, established by Pythagoras, and the school of Cyrene, in the North of Africa. Famous temples of ?sculapius existed at Titan?, Epidaurus, Orope, Cyllene, Tithorea, Tricca, Megalopolis266, Pergamus, Corinth, Smyrna, and at many other places.376
A spirit of healthy emulation267 existed in these different schools, which was most advantageous268 for the progress of medical science. The tone existing at this early period amongst the different medical societies at these institutions is shown in the famous oath which the pupils of the Asclepiad? were compelled to subscribe269 on completing their course of instruction in medicine. It is the oldest written monument of the Greek art of healing.377
169
The Oath.
“I swear by Apollo, the physician, and ?sculapius, and Health, and Panacea,378 and all the gods and goddesses, that, according to my ability and judgment52, I will keep this oath and this stipulation270—to reckon him who taught me this art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation; and that by precept271, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of the art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none others. I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patient, and abstain272 from whatever is deleterious and mischievous273. I will give no deadly medicine to any one if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion274. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practise my art. I will not cut persons labouring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners275 of this work.379
“Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick, and will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief276 and corruption277; and, further, from the seduction of females or males, of freemen or slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge278, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret. While I continue to keep this oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of the art, respected by all men, in all times! But should I trespass279 and violate this oath, may the reverse be my lot!”
Ancient authorities differ as to the respective order in which the schools of the Asclepiads should be esteemed. Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidos continually disputed for the pre-eminence, Cos and Cnidos170 acquiring great fame by their conflicting opinions. According to Galen, the first place must be conceded to Cos, as having produced the greatest number of excellent disciples, amongst whom was Hippocrates; he ranks Cnidos next. Cos (b.c. 600) was the objective school, and devoted its studies chiefly to symptomatology. It asked, what can we see of the patient’s disorder92? of what does he complain? what, in fact, are his symptoms? This is practical medicine, though not so much in accordance with modern scientific medicine as the method of Cnidos, the subjective280 school. There the aim was to make a correct diagnosis281; to find out what was behind the symptoms, what caused the morbid appearances; what it was that the sensations of the patient indicated; and its aim was not to treat symptoms so much as to treat vigorously the disorder which caused them. Auscultation, or the art of scientifically listening to the sounds of the chest, those of the lungs in breathing, and of the heart in beating, was to some extent understood and practised at Cnidos. The medical school of Crotona was in the highest repute 500 b.c., probably on account of its connection with the Pythagoreans. The school of Rhodes does not seem to have had a long life.
That of Cyrene was famous on account not only of its medical teaching, but from the fact that mathematics and philosophy were industriously282 pursued there. The teaching in all these schools must have been of a very high order; for, though unfortunately little of it has descended283 directly to us, we have sufficient evidence of its importance in such fragments as are to be found incorporated with the works of Hippocrates, such as the Coan Prognostics and the Cnidian Sentences; the former, a miscellaneous collection of the observations made by the physician of Cos, and the latter, a work attributed to Euryphon, a celebrated physician of Cnidos (about the former half of the fifth century b.c.).
Experiment and observation were insisted upon in the study of anatomy and physiology. Galen tells us in his second book, On Anatomical Manipulations: “I do not blame the ancients, who did not write books on anatomical manipulations; though I praise Marinus, who did. For it was superfluous284 for them to compose such records for themselves or others, while they were, from their childhood, exercised by their parents in dissecting285, just as familiarly as in writing and reading; so that there was no more fear of their forgetting their anatomy than of their forgetting their alphabet. But when grown men, as well as children, were taught, this thorough discipline fell off; and, the art being carried out of the family of the Asclepiads, and declining by repeated transmission, books became necessary for the student.”
The method of the Asclepiad? was one of true induction286; much was171 imperfect in their efforts to arrive at the beginning of medical science. They had little light, and often stumbled; but they made the best use of what they had, and with all their deviations287 they always returned to the right path, and kept their faces towards the light. Hippocrates was of them; and Bacon of Verulam, in the centuries to come, followed and developed the same method. Dr. Adams remarks the assiduous observation and abundant rational experience which led them to enunciate288 such a law of nature as this: “Those things which bring alleviation289 with bad signs, and do not remit290 with good, are troublesome and difficult.”
Ctesias, of Cnidus, in Caria, was a physician at the court of King Artaxerxes Mnemon. He may be called a contemporary of Herodotus. It is possible that, according to Diodorus, he was a prisoner of war while in Persia, though the well-known fact that Greek physicians were in great request, and were always received there with favour, is quite sufficient to account for his presence in that country. He wrote a history of Persia and a treatise on India, containing many statements formerly considered doubtful, but now proved to be founded on facts.
The persons who anointed the bodies of the athletes of ancient Greece, preparatory to their entering the gymnasia, were called Alipt?. These persons taught gymnastic exercises, practised many operations of surgery, and undertook the treatment of trifling291 diseases. The external use of oil was intended to close the pores of the skin, so as to prevent excessive perspiration292. The oil was mixed with sand, and was well rubbed into the skin. After the exercises, the athletes were again anointed, to restore the tone of the muscles. The alipt? would naturally acquire considerable knowledge of the accidents and maladies to which the human body was subject; accordingly, we find that they not only undertook the treatment of fractures and dislocations, but became the regular medical advisers of their patrons. Iccus of Tarentum devoted himself to dietetics. They were probably a superior class of trainers. Herodicus of Selymbria, a teacher of Hippocrates, treated diseases by exercises. He is said to have been the first to demand a fee in place of the presents which were given by patients formerly to their doctors.380 The gymnasia were dedicated293 to Apollo, the god of physicians.381 The directors of the institutions regulated the diet of the young men, the sub-directors prescribed for their diseases.382 The inferiors, or bathers, bled, gave clysters, and dressed wounds.
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
mythology
|
|
| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
epidemics
|
|
| n．流行病 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
wards
|
|
| 区( ward的名词复数 )； 病房； 受监护的未成年者； 被人照顾或控制的状态 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
avert
|
|
| v.防止，避免；转移(目光、注意力等) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
saviour
|
|
| n.拯救者，救星 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
well-being
|
|
| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
prolific
|
|
| adj.丰富的，大量的；多产的，富有创造力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
deity
|
|
| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
penetrates
|
|
| v.穿过( penetrate的第三人称单数 )；刺入；了解；渗透 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
divination
|
|
| n.占卜，预测 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
acting
|
|
| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
ecstasy
|
|
| n.狂喜，心醉神怡，入迷 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
centaur
|
|
| n.人首马身的怪物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
instructor
|
|
| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
celebrated
|
|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
wholesome
|
|
| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
soothing
|
|
| adj.慰藉的；使人宽心的；镇静的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
dart
|
|
| v.猛冲，投掷；n.飞镖，猛冲 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
corroding
|
|
| 使腐蚀，侵蚀( corrode的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
ulcers
|
|
| n.溃疡( ulcer的名词复数 )；腐烂物；道德败坏；腐败 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
gnaw
|
|
| v.不断地啃、咬；使苦恼，折磨 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
hurled
|
|
| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
pang
|
|
| n.剧痛，悲痛，苦闷 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
draught
|
|
| n.拉，牵引，拖；一网（饮，吸，阵)；顿服药量，通风；v.起草，设计 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
applied
|
|
| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
amulets
|
|
| n.护身符( amulet的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
practitioner
|
|
| n.实践者，从事者；(医生或律师等)开业者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
Pluto
|
|
| n.冥王星 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
soothe
|
|
| v.安慰；使平静；使减轻；缓和；奉承 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
prudence
|
|
| n.谨慎，精明，节俭 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
renovation
|
|
| n.革新，整修 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
virtues
|
|
| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
symbolize
|
|
| vt.作为...的象征，用符号代表 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
knotty
|
|
| adj.有结的，多节的，多瘤的，棘手的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
invoked
|
|
| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
bestow
|
|
| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
bestows
|
|
| 赠给，授予( bestow的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
inviolate
|
|
| adj.未亵渎的，未受侵犯的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
dispense
|
|
| vt.分配，分发；配(药)，发(药)；实施 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
assuaged
|
|
| v.减轻( assuage的过去式和过去分词 )；缓和；平息；使安静 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
oracles
|
|
| 神示所( oracle的名词复数 )； 神谕； 圣贤； 哲人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
benefactors
|
|
| n.捐助者，施主( benefactor的名词复数 )；恩人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
animating
|
|
| v.使有生气( animate的现在分词 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
exalting
|
|
| a.令人激动的，令人喜悦的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
intoxicating
|
|
| a. 醉人的,使人兴奋的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
languishing
|
|
| a. 衰弱下去的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
vitality
|
|
| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
pervading
|
|
| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
embodied
|
|
| v.表现( embody的过去式和过去分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
refreshing
|
|
| adj.使精神振作的，使人清爽的，使人喜欢的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
blessing
|
|
| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
judgment
|
|
| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
judgments
|
|
| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
engraved
|
|
| v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的过去式和过去分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
clement
|
|
| adj.仁慈的；温和的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
Founder
|
|
| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
wilt
|
|
| v.(使)植物凋谢或枯萎；(指人)疲倦，衰弱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
preyed
|
|
| v.掠食( prey的过去式和过去分词 )；掠食；折磨；（人）靠欺诈为生 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
unguent
|
|
| n.（药）膏；润滑剂；滑油 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
redress
|
|
| n.赔偿，救济，矫正；v.纠正，匡正，革除 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
soften
|
|
| v.(使)变柔软；(使)变柔和 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
eminent
|
|
| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
fable
|
|
| n.寓言；童话；神话 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
fabled
|
|
| adj.寓言中的，虚构的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
foretell
|
|
| v.预言，预告，预示 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
rust
|
|
| n.锈；v.生锈；(脑子)衰退 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
eminently
|
|
| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
eldest
|
|
| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
gratitude
|
|
| adj.感激，感谢 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
odyssey
|
|
| n.长途冒险旅行；一连串的冒险 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
pestilence
|
|
| n.瘟疫 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
fixed
|
|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
morbid
|
|
| adj.病的；致病的；病态的；可怕的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
lore
|
|
| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
anatomy
|
|
| n.解剖学，解剖；功能，结构，组织 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
profanation
|
|
| n.亵渎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
dissect
|
|
| v.分割；解剖 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
corpse
|
|
| n.尸体，死尸 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
embalm
|
|
| v.保存（尸体）不腐 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
nostrils
|
|
| 鼻孔( nostril的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
ambrosia
|
|
| n.神的食物；蜂食 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
putrefaction
|
|
| n.腐坏，腐败 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
distinguished
|
|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
ointments
|
|
| n.软膏( ointment的名词复数 )；扫兴的人；煞风景的事物；药膏 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
bruised
|
|
| [医]青肿的，瘀紫的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
minor
|
|
| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
arteries
|
|
| n.动脉( artery的名词复数 )；干线，要道 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
surgical
|
|
| adj.外科的，外科医生的，手术上的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
refreshment
|
|
| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
barley
|
|
| n.大麦，大麦粒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
invalids
|
|
| 病人，残疾者( invalid的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
disorder
|
|
| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
disorders
|
|
| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
avocations
|
|
| n.业余爱好，嗜好( avocation的名词复数 )；职业 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
chronic
|
|
| adj.(疾病)长期未愈的，慢性的；极坏的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
protract
|
|
| v.延长，拖长 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
miserable
|
|
| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
rue
|
|
| n.懊悔，芸香，后悔；v.后悔，悲伤，懊悔 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
nutritious
|
|
| adj.有营养的，营养价值高的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
irreproachable
|
|
| adj.不可指责的，无过失的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
conclusive
|
|
| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
epic
|
|
| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
exalted
|
|
| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
discourse
|
|
| n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
discourses
|
|
| 论文( discourse的名词复数 )； 演说； 讲道； 话语 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
patriotic
|
|
| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
antiquity
|
|
| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
specify
|
|
| vt.指定，详细说明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
wondrous
|
|
| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
astringent
|
|
| adj.止血的，收缩的，涩的；n.收缩剂，止血剂 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
commentators
|
|
| n.评论员( commentator的名词复数 )；时事评论员；注释者；实况广播员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
poetic
|
|
| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
fumigation
|
|
| n.烟熏，熏蒸；忿恨 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
monarch
|
|
| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
noxious
|
|
| adj.有害的，有毒的；使道德败坏的，讨厌的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
116
fumes
|
|
| n.(强烈而刺激的)气味，气体 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
purged
|
|
| 清除（政敌等）( purge的过去式和过去分词 )； 涤除（罪恶等）； 净化（心灵、风气等）； 消除（错事等）的不良影响 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
precisely
|
|
| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
sanitary
|
|
| adj.卫生方面的，卫生的，清洁的，卫生的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
dens
|
|
| n.牙齿，齿状部分；兽窝( den的名词复数 )；窝点；休息室；书斋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
possessed
|
|
| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
advisers
|
|
| 顾问，劝告者( adviser的名词复数 )； （指导大学新生学科问题等的）指导教授 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
esteemed
|
|
| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
bestowed
|
|
| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
lighter
|
|
| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
incurable
|
|
| adj.不能医治的，不能矫正的，无救的；n.不治的病人，无救的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
incur
|
|
| vt.招致，蒙受，遭遇 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
dexterity
|
|
| n.(手的)灵巧，灵活 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
fabulous
|
|
| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
131
vessels
|
|
| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
132
purging
|
|
| 清洗； 清除； 净化； 洗炉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
133
purgative
|
|
| n.泻药；adj.通便的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
134
emetic
|
|
| n.催吐剂；adj.催吐的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
135
purgatives
|
|
| 泻剂( purgative的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
136
overloaded
|
|
| a.超载的，超负荷的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
137
distress
|
|
| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
138
vomit
|
|
| v.呕吐，作呕；n.呕吐物，吐出物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
139
alleviated
|
|
| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
140
vein
|
|
| n.血管，静脉；叶脉，纹理；情绪；vt.使成脉络 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
141
hippopotamus
|
|
| n.河马 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
142
pointed
|
|
| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
143
drawn
|
|
| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
144
panacea
|
|
| n.万灵药；治百病的灵药 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
145
consecrated
|
|
| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
146
immortal
|
|
| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
147
supreme
|
|
| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
148
Christian
|
|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
149
shrines
|
|
| 圣地，圣坛，神圣场所( shrine的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
150
rites
|
|
| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
151
stimulus
|
|
| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
152
treatise
|
|
| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
153
treatises
|
|
| n.专题著作，专题论文，专著( treatise的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
154
founders
|
|
| n.创始人( founder的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
155
deformed
|
|
| adj.畸形的；变形的；丑的，破相了的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
156
deities
|
|
| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
157
fathom
|
|
| v.领悟，彻底了解 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
158
physicists
|
|
| 物理学家( physicist的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
159
materialistic
|
|
| a.唯物主义的，物质享乐主义的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
160
devoted
|
|
| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
161
phenomena
|
|
| n.现象 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
162
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
163
converse
|
|
| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
164
expiatory
|
|
| adj.赎罪的，补偿的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
165
exempt
|
|
| adj.免除的；v.使免除；n.免税者，被免除义务者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
166
bards
|
|
| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
167
everlasting
|
|
| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
168
chaos
|
|
| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
169
derived
|
|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
170
affinities
|
|
| n.密切关系( affinity的名词复数 )；亲近；（生性）喜爱；类同 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
171
density
|
|
| n.密集，密度，浓度 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
172
primal
|
|
| adj.原始的；最重要的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
173
eternity
|
|
| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
174
unity
|
|
| n.团结，联合，统一；和睦，协调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
175
descends
|
|
| v.下来( descend的第三人称单数 )；下去；下降；下斜 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
176
predecessors
|
|
| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
177
postulated
|
|
| v.假定，假设( postulate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
178
physiological
|
|
| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
179
affinity
|
|
| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
180
dissection
|
|
| n.分析；解剖 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
181
lateral
|
|
| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
182
veins
|
|
| n.纹理；矿脉( vein的名词复数 )；静脉；叶脉；纹理 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
183
philosophical
|
|
| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
184
vascular
|
|
| adj.血管的，脉管的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
185
physiologists
|
|
| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
186
repulsive
|
|
| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
187
pervade
|
|
| v.弥漫，遍及，充满，渗透，漫延 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
188
aggregation
|
|
| n.聚合，组合；凝聚 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
189
segregation
|
|
| n.隔离，种族隔离 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
190
juxtaposition
|
|
| n.毗邻，并置，并列 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
191
demons
|
|
| n.恶人( demon的名词复数 )；恶魔；精力过人的人；邪念 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
192
banishment
|
|
| n.放逐，驱逐 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
193
regain
|
|
| vt.重新获得，收复，恢复 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
194
banished
|
|
| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
195
marshy
|
|
| adj.沼泽的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
196
usurped
|
|
| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
197
embryo
|
|
| n.胚胎，萌芽的事物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
198
membranes
|
|
| n.（动物或植物体内的）薄膜( membrane的名词复数 )；隔膜；（可起防水、防风等作用的）膜状物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
199
extinction
|
|
| n.熄灭，消亡，消灭，灭绝，绝种 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
200
expiration
|
|
| n.终结，期满，呼气，呼出物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
201
disciples
|
|
| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
202
disciple
|
|
| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
203
revered
|
|
| v.崇敬，尊崇，敬畏( revere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
204
boundless
|
|
| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
205
entanglement
|
|
| n.纠缠，牵累 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
206
liberated
|
|
| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
207
mythical
|
|
| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
208
haze
|
|
| n.霾，烟雾；懵懂，迷糊；vi.(over)变模糊 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
209
enveloped
|
|
| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
210
Mediterranean
|
|
| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
211
authentic
|
|
| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
212
brotherhood
|
|
| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
213
imbued
|
|
| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的过去式和过去分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
214
subsists
|
|
| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
215
revolve
|
|
| vi.(使)旋转；循环出现 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
216
harmoniously
|
|
| 和谐地，调和地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
217
unlimited
|
|
| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
218
crooked
|
|
| adj.弯曲的；不诚实的，狡猾的，不正当的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
219
asceticism
|
|
| n.禁欲主义 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
220
discord
|
|
| n.不和，意见不合，争论，（音乐）不和谐 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
221
dispelled
|
|
| v.驱散，赶跑( dispel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
222
immortality
|
|
| n.不死，不朽 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
223
resinous
|
|
| adj.树脂的，树脂质的，树脂制的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
224
veneration
|
|
| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
225
enchantments
|
|
| n.魅力( enchantment的名词复数 )；迷人之处；施魔法；着魔 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
226
procure
|
|
| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
227
treasury
|
|
| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
228
tyrant
|
|
| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
229
interceded
|
|
| v.斡旋，调解( intercede的过去式和过去分词 )；说情 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
230
versed
|
|
| adj. 精通，熟练 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
231
ardent
|
|
| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
232
investigation
|
|
| n.调查，调查研究 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
233
zealously
|
|
| adv.热心地；热情地；积极地；狂热地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
234
physiology
|
|
| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
235
chameleon
|
|
| n.变色龙，蜥蜴；善变之人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
236
canine
|
|
| adj.犬的，犬科的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
237
inhaling
|
|
| v.吸入( inhale的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
238
exhaling
|
|
| v.呼出，发散出( exhale的现在分词 )；吐出（肺中的空气、烟等），呼气 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
239
speculations
|
|
| n.投机买卖( speculation的名词复数 )；思考；投机活动；推断 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
240
modifications
|
|
| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
241
devoid
|
|
| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
242
susceptible
|
|
| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
243
convertible
|
|
| adj.可改变的，可交换，同意义的；n.有活动摺篷的汽车 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
244
formerly
|
|
| adv.从前，以前 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
245
poetically
|
|
| adv.有诗意地，用韵文 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
246
abide
|
|
| vi.遵守；坚持；vt.忍受 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
247
ascend
|
|
| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
248
subsides
|
|
| v.（土地）下陷（因在地下采矿）( subside的第三人称单数 )；减弱；下降至较低或正常水平；一下子坐在椅子等上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
249
extenuates
|
|
| v.（用偏袒的辩解或借口）减轻( extenuate的第三人称单数 )；低估，藐视 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
250
spun
|
|
| v.纺，杜撰，急转身 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
251
hue
|
|
| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
252
innovating
|
|
| v.改革，创新( innovate的现在分词 )；引入（新事物、思想或方法）， | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
253
awe
|
|
| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
254
stimulate
|
|
| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
255
massage
|
|
| n.按摩，揉；vt.按摩，揉，美化，奉承，篡改数据 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
256
initiatory
|
|
| adj.开始的；创始的；入会的；入社的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
257
vouchsafed
|
|
| v.给予，赐予( vouchsafe的过去式和过去分词 )；允诺 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
258
prescriptions
|
|
| 药( prescription的名词复数 )； 处方； 开处方； 计划 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
259
requisite
|
|
| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
260
guild
|
|
| n.行会，同业公会，协会 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
261
doctrines
|
|
| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
262
hereditary
|
|
| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
263
hemlock
|
|
| n.毒胡萝卜，铁杉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
264
skilful
|
|
| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
265
dietetics
|
|
| n.营养学 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
266
megalopolis
|
|
| n.特大城市 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
267
emulation
|
|
| n.竞争；仿效 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
268
advantageous
|
|
| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
269
subscribe
|
|
| vi.(to)订阅，订购；同意；vt.捐助，赞助 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
270
stipulation
|
|
| n.契约，规定，条文；条款说明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
271
precept
|
|
| n.戒律；格言 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
272
abstain
|
|
| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
273
mischievous
|
|
| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
274
abortion
|
|
| n.流产，堕胎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
275
practitioners
|
|
| n.习艺者，实习者( practitioner的名词复数 )；从业者（尤指医师） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
276
mischief
|
|
| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
277
corruption
|
|
| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
278
divulge
|
|
| v.泄漏(秘密等)；宣布，公布 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
279
trespass
|
|
| n./v.侵犯，闯入私人领地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
280
subjective
|
|
| a.主观(上)的，个人的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
281
diagnosis
|
|
| n.诊断，诊断结果，调查分析，判断 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
282
industriously
|
|
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
283
descended
|
|
| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
284
superfluous
|
|
| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
285
dissecting
|
|
| v.解剖（动物等）( dissect的现在分词 )；仔细分析或研究 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
286
induction
|
|
| n.感应，感应现象 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
287
deviations
|
|
| 背离，偏离( deviation的名词复数 )； 离经叛道的行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
288
enunciate
|
|
| v.发音；（清楚地）表达 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
289
alleviation
|
|
| n. 减轻，缓和，解痛物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
290
remit
|
|
| v.汇款，汇寄；豁免（债务），免除（处罚等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
291
trifling
|
|
| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
292
perspiration
|
|
| n.汗水；出汗 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
293
dedicated
|
|
| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |