If ignorance would look upon its own degradation11, let it spend a few hours in an assize court. One trial I witnessed was of two men for an offence which indeed arose out of depravity, but the depravity arose out of bad training and vicious circumstances. The oldest man, between forty and fifty, was sentenced to transportation for life to Norfolk Island, the most ferocious12 sentence an English judge can pronounce. When the man heard it, he bowed in genuine and awkward humbleness13, and said, as he made a rustic14 bow to the bench, 'Thank'ee, my Lord!' Such abject15 humiliation16 of spirit I had never conceived before. Ignorance never appeared to me so frightful17, so slavish, so blind, as on this occasion. Unable to distinguish a sentence passed upon him from a service done him, he had been taught to bow to his pastors19 and masters, and he bowed alike when cursed as when blessed. The measured contempt with which the words were spoken by the judge which blasted the man's character for ever—the scorn with which he was thrust out of the pale of society, never again to know freedom or reputation, made no impression on his dark and servile soul. That appalling22 weight of infamy23 falling on his head and on the heads of his children—for which he might justly have cursed society—only elicited24 from him a 'Thank'ee, my Lord!' If ignorance would see its own degradation, would feel the incalculable depth of its abjectness25, let it sometimes sit for instruction in an assize court.
The preliminary proceedings27 at the trial I shall render as Mr. Hunt gave them, in the third person—adding what, from various causes, was omitted at the time.
On the morning of the trial the Court-house at Gloucester was very crowded. Many ladies were present from all parts of the county: the wives of clergymen, and some of the nobility, were among them, attracted by curiosity, and by the opportunity which might never occur to them again of hearing, without loss of caste, a little heresy31 defended in person. The audience continued undiminished till ten o'clock at night.
As the name of George Jacob Holyoake was called, he advanced and entered the dock. Mr. Ogden, the turnkey in charge of prisoners, directed him with the usual air of official impatience32 to take his place at the bar.
Mr. Holyoake. Do not be in a hurry. First hand me my books.
Mr. Ogden. (Looking indignantly at a large corded box lying outside the dock.) You can't have that box here. You must go to the bar and plead.
Mr. Holyoake. Nonsense. Hand me the box.
It being reluctantly handed up, Mr. Holyoake applied33 to the judge, Mr. Justice Erskine, for the use of a table.
Mr. Justice Erskine. There is one. (He referred to some boarding behind the bar), and there Mr. Holyoake proceeded to arrange his books and papers—although the situation was not advantageous35, it being lower than the bar where the prisoners usually stand. Mr. Holyoake employed twenty minutes in this operation, and when he had done, the dock resembled, a young bookseller's stall. Mr. Holyoake then advanced to the bar and bowed to the court.
Mr. Justice Erskine (who had waited with great patience). Are you ready?
Mr. Holyoake replied affirmatively, and the clerk proceeded to read the indictment36 as follows:—
[Gloucester to wit.]—The Jurors for our lady the Queen, upon their oath, present that George Jacob Holyoake, late of the parish of Cheltenham, in the county of Gloucester, labourer,* being a wicked, malicious37, and evil-disposed person, and disregarding the laws and religion of the realm, and wickedly and profanely38 devising and intending to bring Almighty40 God, the Holy Scriptures41, and the Christian43 religion, into disbelief and contempt among the people of this kingdom, on the twenty-fourth day of May, in the fifth year of the reign44 of our lady the Queen, with force and arms, at the parish aforesaid, in the county aforesaid, in the presence and hearing of divers45 liege subjects of our said lady the Queen, maliciously46, unlawfully, and wickedly did compose, speak, utter, pronounce, and publish with a loud voice, of and concerning Almighty Gog, the Holy Scriptures, and the Christian religion, these words following, that is to say, 'I (meaning the said George Jacob Holyoake) do not believe there is such a thing as a God; I (meaning the said George Jacob Holyoake) would have the Deity48 served as they (meaning the government of this kingdom) serve the subaltern, place him (meaning Almighty God) on half-pay'—to the high displeasure of Almighty God, to the great scandal and reproach of the Christian religion, in open violation49 of the laws of this kingdom, to the evil example of all others in the like case offending, and against the peace of our lady the Queen, her crown and dignity.
* It was pure invention that described me as a' labourer.'
It was a term of degradation in the county, and therefore
employed—my profession was that of a Mathematical Teacher.
Mr. Holyoake pleaded Not Guilty, and applied to have the names of the jury called over singly and distinctly.
Mr. Alexander, counsel for the prosecution52, said the offence being only a misdemeanour, the defendant53 had no right to challenge.
Mr. Justice Erskine. Of course not, unless reasons are given in each case.
Clerk. The name of John Lovesey is first.
Mr. Holyoake. I object to Lovesey. He sat on the bench when I was before the magistrates55 at Cheltenham, and approved the proceedings against me. He is not disinterested56 in this matter.
Mr. Justice Erskine said that was not sufficient reason for challenging.
Loresey declared he 'shuddered57 at the crime of the prisoner,' and after some further conversation, the judge having observed it was 'as well to go,' Lovesey left the box.
Mr. Holyoake. In the case of Mr. Southwell he was allowed to challenge.
Mr. Justice Erskine. I am not bound by the Recorder of Bristol.
The names of the other jurors having been called over, Mr. Holyoake objected to one on the ground of his being a farmer, and from his profession not likely to be acquainted with the nature of the question at issue.*
Mr. Justice Erskine said he could not sit there to listen to such objections. Mr. Holyoake saying he had no objection to urge which his lordship would allow, 'seven farmers, one grocer, one poulterer, one miller58, one nondescript shopkeeper, and one maltster, were then impaneled to ascertain59 whether one George Jacob Holyoake had had a fight with Omnipotence60, whether he had done his utmost to bring the Deity into contempt, whether he had fought Omnipotence with force of arms, and had spoken against it or him with a loud voice.'**
* A poulterer is called upon, under oath, to decide this
great theological and philosophical62 question that has
agitated the world for so many hundred centuries.......To
with making the Archbishop of Canterbury a judge of
objected to this that very likely his Grace of Canterbury is
a very good judge of poultry.]
** 'Publicola's' second letter to Judge Erskine.—Weekly
Dispatch, Sep 18, 1842
The following is the list of the jury:—
Thomas Gardiner, grocer, Cheltenham, Foreman.
James Reeve, farmer, Chedworth.
William Ellis, farmer, Chedworth.
Avery Trotman, farmer, Chedworth.
William Mathews, poulterer, Cheltenham.'
Simon Vizard, shopkeeper, Oldland. Isaac Tombs, farmer, Whitcomb. William Wilson, maltster, Brimpsfield. Edwin Brown, farmer, Withington. Bevan Smith, farmer, Harescomb. William Smith, miller, Rarnwood. Joseph Shipp, farmer, Yate.
Mr. Holyoake. Can I have a copy of the indictment?
Mr. Justice Erskine. I had one made for you in consequence of your application to the court last week.
Mr. Holyoake. Yes, my lord, but after I had thanked you for your courtesy in so doing, I was asked 8s. 6d. for it by (not being able to call him by his name, Mr. Holyoake said) that sour looking gentleman there, (pointing to the clerk of the court, an individual as dusty and as forbidding as an old penal65 statute66, and who always spoke20 to Mr. Holyoake like one. The court laughed, the judge frowned, the clerk looked indignant, but before censure67 could fall, Mr. Holyoake escaped into the next sentence, adding), after the numerous exactions I was subjected to at the sessions, after being brought here by the magistrates and then not tried, I did not think myself justified68 in paying any more, and the clerk refused it me.
Mr. Justice Erskine. I ordered a copy to be made for you, but did not think it necessary that you should have it on any other than the usual conditions.*
Mr. Holyoake. Can I be allowed to read the indictment against me?
Mr. Justice Erskine. Certainly.
The clerk then handed a copy to Mr. Holyoake, who on observing the counsel for the prosecution rise, left the bar and placed himself where he could face Mr. Alexander, with a view to take notes. The judge very courteously69 asked if Mr. Holyoake desired note-paper and pens, which he accepted, and:
Mr. Alexander said—Gentlemen of the jury: The defendant at the bar is indicted70, not for writing, but for speaking and uttering certain wicked and blasphemous72 words. This person is not, as in the case previously73 brought before your attention,** the vendor75, but he is the author of the blasphemy76. From the coincidence of words, he is the editor-Mr. Justice Erskine. You must not proceed in that way. You must not assume—
* This copy of Indictment occupied not quite one sheet of
paper, for which eight shillings and sixpence were asked!
**That of George Adams.
Mr. Alexander. I am aware, my lord, that I may not assert the identity of the defendant with the work alluded78 to—I was only going to draw the attention of the gentlemen of the jury to the coincidence of the words. But I will proceed with my case. The defendant, on the 24th of May last, issued placards for a lecture to be delivered in Cheltenham. In these placards he announced, not the diabolical79, the dreadful topics which he descanted upon, not anything which would lead the reader to imagine or expect what really took place—but he gave out his subject as a lecture upon Home Colonisation, Emigration, and the Poor Laws. Mark this, gentlemen of the jury. Had he given in his announcements any hint of what was to take place, his end might have been defeated, and no audience attracted to listen to the blasphemous expressions you have heard set out in the indictment. But he did obtain an audience, a numerous audience, and then declared that the people were too poor to have a religion—that he himself had no religion—that he did not believe in such a thing as a God; and—though it pains me to repeat the horrible blasphemy—that he would place the Deity upon half-pay. I shall call witnesses to prove all this, and then it will be for you to say if he is guilty. It may be urged to you that these things were said in answer to a question, that the inuendoes must be made out. Inuendoes! I should think it an insult to the understandings of twelve jurymen—of twelve intelligent men—to call witnesses to prove inuendoes: but I shall place the case before you, and leave it in your hands. I am sure I need not speak, I need not dilate81 upon the consequence of insulting that Deity we are as much bound, as inclined, to reverence82. He then called James Bartram—who said: I am a printer at Cheltenham, employed upon the Cheltenham Chronicle; attended the lecture of defendant, just after nine o'clock; there were about one hundred persons present of both sexes; the placard announced 'Home Colonisation, Emigration, Poor Laws Superseded83;' heard a man put a question to Mr. Holyoake; he said,' The lecturer has been speaking of our duty to man, but he has said nothing as regards our duty towards God.' Prisoner replied, 'I am of no religion at all—I do not believe in such a thing as a God. The people of this country are too poor to have any religion. I would serve the Deity as the government does the subaltern—place him on half-pay.' He was the length of the room off; I heard him distinctly; he spoke in a distinct voice.
Cross-examined by Mr. Holyoake. You say I said the people were too poor to have any religion; will you state the reasons I gave? Witness. I can give the substance, if not the words; 'you said, 'The great expense of religion to the country.'
Mr. Holyoake. I will thank you to state the other reasons?
Mr. Holyoake. Now, you have sworn the words are blasphemous—
Mr. Justice Erskine. No, he has not.
Mr. Holyoake. Will you state if the words are blasphemous?
Mr. Justice Erskine said such a question could only be put through him. He then put the question—do you consider the words blasphemous?
Witness. I do.
Mr. Holyoake. Why do you think them blasphemous?
Witness. Because they revile85 the majesty86 of heaven, and are calculated to subvert87 peace, law, and order; and are punishable by human law, because they attack human authority.
Mr. Holyoake. Who has instructed you to define blasphemy thus?
Witness. I have not been instructed, it is my own opinion.
Mr. Holyoake. At Cheltenham, during my examination before the magistrates, you did not appear to have these notions. Will you swear you have not concocted88 that answer for this occasion?
Witness. I did not expect such a question would be put; I did not expect to be catechised.
Mr. Holyoake. Who advised you to attend as a witness? Witness. The magistrates sent for me.
Mr. Holyoake. Did you not know before the day of my commitment something of this matter?
Witness. There was some 'chaff89' in the office about it; that's all I heard of it; a policeman was sent from the magistrates for me to give the names of witnesses who were to appear. Don't know why the policeman came to me; don't know his name; no clergyman has spoken to me, that I recollect, upon the subject of this prosecution; not sure of it; several persons have spoken to me, cannot say they were clergymen; I do not know the parties who got up the prosecution, or sent the policeman to me; the report was furnished to the paper I work on by another person; I saw the reporter's notes, but not the editor's observations till the galleys90 were pulled. Mr. Justice Erskine. What do you mean by galleys pulled? Witness. Brass91 slides, my lord.
Mr. Justice Erskine. You mean, I suppose, till all the types were up?
Witness. Yes, my lord.
Cross-examination resumed. Do not know of my own knowledge who made the report; have been ten years in employment at Chronicle office; know it was said in that paper that three witnesses from that office could prove what had occurred at the lecture; the name of reporter of our paper is Edward Wills; I heard your lecture, you said nothing against morality. Mr. Holyoake. Will you state your opinion of morality? Mr. Justice Erskine. The question is irrelevant92. Mr. Holyoake. Did you think I spoke my honest convictions? Witness. I thought you spoke what you meant; you spoke straightforwardly93.
The judge here interposed, to stop Mr. Holyoake from asking as to witness's opinions.
Cross-examination resumed—Witness. I should not have lost my situation if I had not come forward in this case; in my opinion you spoke wickedly, as stated in indictment; I did not notice that you spoke contemptuously when using the word thing, but you used the word; there were other words between those used in indictment; they did not, is in that document, follow one another; I do not remember the words; you spoke of the enormous sums of money spent upon religion, and the poverty of the people, and afterwards, and in connection with that, said you would place Deity as government did the subalterns—on half-pay; I have been a preacher.
Re-examined by Mr. Alexander. I have been uninterruptedly ten years in the same employment; do not give evidence from fear or reward; but from a sense of duty.
Mr. Alexander. That is the case for the prosecution, my lord.
Mr. Justice Erskine. Now is the time for your defence.
Mr. Holyoake. I am not a little surprised to hear that the case for the prosecution is closed. I have heard nothing, not one word, to prove the charge in the indictment. There has been adduced no evidence to show that I have uttered words maliciously and wickedly blasphemous. I submit to your lordship that there is not sufficient evidence before the Court.
Mr. Justice Erskine. That is for the jury to decide.
Mr. Holyoake. I thought, my lord, as the evidence is so manifestly insufficient94 to prove malice95, you would have felt bound to direct my acquittal.
Mr. Justice Erskine. It is for the jury to say whether they are satisfied.
Mr. Holyoake. Then, Gentlemen of the Jury, it now becomes my duty to address you on the nature of the charge preferred against me, and of the evidence by which it is attempted to be supported. When I stood in this court a week ago, and saw the grand jury with Mr. Grantley Berkeley at their head as foreman—when I heard his lordship, surrounded by learned counsel, deliver his charge in the midst of persons distinguished97 for learning, for eloquence98, for experience, and for literary attainments—
I then thought, as I now do, that this court could find nobler means than the employment of brute99 force to counteract100 anything I could attempt—which I never have done—to bring the truly sacred into contempt. I thought I never should be called upon to stand in this dock, with all its polluting and disgusting associations, to answer for mere101 matters of speculative102 opinion. I did think that such persons possessed103 a sense of the powers of the human mind that would have prevented the interposition of penal judges upon such subjects.
But to Mr. Grantley Berkeley, as foreman of the grand jury who found a true bill against me, I beg to draw your attention. Mr. Grantley Berkeley, as you are aware, is brother to the member, Mr. C. Berkeley, who attempted to vindicate104 the conduct of the Cheltenham magistrates from the allegations against them by Sir James Graham in the House of Commons. In the recent case of Mr. Mason, who was taken from a meeting, as I was at Cheltenham, by a policeman, illegally, without a warrant, the doctrine105 was laid down by a cabinet minister, in the House of Commons, that if the person so arrested was subsequently found guilty by a jury, the illegal apprehension106 was justified. See how this applies to my case. I was taken from a public meeting a week after the objectionable words were spoken; was taken by a policeman at near midnight; without a warrant. This was justly deemed illegal. I sat in the gallery of the House of Commons when the Hon. Member for Bath brought forward my case, and when Sir James Graham, in reference to the correspondence which had taken place with the magistrates, had the frankness to say, 'there had been serious irregularities and unnecessary harshness used in the case of Holyoake.' In this country four thousand applications are annually107 made to the Secretary of State for the Home Department, and out of that four thousand my case is spoken of as one in which serious irregularities had occurred, and unnecessary harshness been employed. And that amid the numerous affairs of this great empire it should have received this distinct notice is presumptive evidence that it contained much that should be corrected. On Thursday, July 21, the Hon. Mr. C. Berkeley, addressing the Speaker of the House of Commons, said, 'I wish to ask the Right Hon. Baronet the Secretary for the Home Department a question, but in order to make it intelligible108 to the House, it will be necessary for me to refer to what took place on Tuesday last. It appears that upon that day the Hon. member for Bath stated, "that as a person named Holyoake had been committed to prison, at Cheltenham, in an improper109 manner, he wished to know whether the Right Hon. the Secretary for the Home Department had any objection to produce the correspondence which had taken place upon that subject"—to which the Right Hon. Baronet replied that, "he felt called on in the discharge of his duty to inquire into the circumstances of the commitment in question—he found that serious irregularities had been committed, and he expressed his opinion to that effect—but as legal proceedings were likely to result out of what had occurred, he did not think it would be judicious110 in the Hon. and learned Gentleman to press for the production of the correspondence."...
...The Right Hon. Baronet knows, or at least ought to know, that no such imputation111 could with propriety112 be cast upon the magistrates, for by the 3rd section of the 2nd and 3rd of Victoria, commonly called the County Constabulary Act, no magistrate54 or magistrates, in petty sessions assembled, can interfere113 with or control the chief constable114, or any sub-constable, in the discharge of their duties, as the rules and regulations for these all emanate115 from the office of the Right Hon. Baronet. It therefore was exceedingly unfair that these imputations should go forth116, and I have therefore now to ask, on behalf of the magistrates, whether the Right Hon. Baronet objects to the correspondence being printed and circulated with the votes of the house, and in case he should object I shall offer it for the perusal117 of the Hon. Member for Bath.' Sir James Graham, in reply, said, 'I had no intention whatever to cast any imputation on the gentlemen, who that day formed the Petty Sessions. My observation more properly applied to the capture of Holyoake, and the unnecessary harshness used in his conveyance118 from the magistrates' office. At the same time I shall object to the printing of the correspondence with the votes, as no good result would come from it. Of course the hon. member is at liberty to offer it to the Hon. Member for Bath if he chooses—but I repeat, that as legal proceedings were pending119, I think such course not advisable.'
This is a most flagrant attempt at justification120. The Act the hon. member quoted related to Petty Session magistrates, before whom he knew my case had never come, and of whom, therefore, no complaint could have been made. But Mr. Berkeley had a friendly purpose to serve. The magistrates and their friends have the strongest motives121 for finding a true bill against me—and they have motives equally powerful for desiring that your verdict should be 'guilty,' inasmuch as that verdict will justify123 all these 'irregularities'—all the 'unnecessary harshness'—will remove from their shoulders all the responsibility which they incurred124 by the course they have pursued towards me. Bear in mind, gentlemen of the jury, if the rights are to be enjoyed about which we so much glorify125 ourselves, cases of this kind must not be allowed to pass unnoticed. 'Serious irregularities' demand serious notice. Arbitrary infraction126 of the liberty of the subject must not receive the sanction of a jury. Recollect that the same course may be pursued towards any one of you, and that if it receives your sanction it will be made a precedent127 of law—and pernicious may be its influence.
But I would draw your attention to a printed report of remarks, made by his lordship, in his charge to the grand jury upon my case, I do not for a moment believe that his lordship had other than fair intentions, but, unfortunately, his remarks will have a contrary effect on those who have to judge my case. I have in my hand the Cheltenham Chronicle, of Wednesday last, August 10th, from which I will read. 'These offences,' he said, referring to the cases of blasphemy, 'lay at the root of all the crime which prevailed, and a consideration of the causes out of which they sprung pointed128 to the only efficient remedy for their removal. In the case of Holyoake, his lordship observed that a work called the Oracle129 of Reason had been printed and circulated containing language which he did not think it right to repeat; language in which the writer traced all the evil which existed in the world, not to the real cause—the evil passions of the human heart—but to the existence of Christianity itself. This was followed by the most opprobrious130 language'—
Mr. Justice Erskine (interrupting). I never said anything of that kind—that printed report is entirely131 incorrect.
Mr. Holyoake. I will read some notes of your lordship's charge, taken at the time of its delivery by a reporter. But whether the report in the Chronicle is correct or incorrect, it has had its influence in leading the public, and probably this jury, to a prejudgment of my case.
'There are other charges which seem at once to lead the mind to the consideration of the root of all the evil which forms the subject of our present consideration. I allude77 to two charges of blasphemy. In one the accused is said to have sold and published a paper called the Oracle of Reason containing language which I shall not think it right to read, in which the writer traces the evils at present existing, not to the evil passions of man, but to the existence of Christianity, and follows it up with the most opprobrious language to the Saviour133 and his system, charging him with being the occasion of all the crime and misery134 which prevail. The second charge is against a man who gave a lecture, in the course of which he discussed the proper way of teaching man his duty to his neighbour. A person suggested that he had said nothing about teaching man his duty to his God. That led to a statement which shows the folly135 of the person; and he followed it up by making use of such language that, if you believe it was intended to have destroyed the reverence for God, he has subjected himself to punishment. There is another thing—he does not appear to have intended to discuss this; but if you are convinced that, by what he has said, he intended to bring religion into contempt, he is guilty of blasphemy. If such addresses had been directed to the educated classes, it might have been thought they would remedy themselves; but when they are delivered among persons not educated, the greatest danger might be expected. It is not by the punishment of those who attempt to mislead the ignorant that we can hope to cure the evil. If we feel that it is from the ignorance of those persons to whom the addresses are delivered that the danger is to be apprehended136, it becomes our imperative138 duty to teach those persons. Some persons have said, "Instruct the poor in reading and writing, but leave them to learn religion at home." But what would you say to a man who would manure139 his land, and leave it to find seed for itself? It would produce nothing but weeds. I know there is great difficulty in arranging any national schools; but, as we are all individually sufferers, I hope we shall join in extending a national religious education, so that all may learn to do right, not from a fear of punishment, but from a far nobler motive122—the knowledge that offences against the laws are contrary to the precepts140 of the word of God, and hostile to the best interests of society.'
I fear his lordship may not give me credit for sincerity141; but I do assure you, gentlemen of the jury, no one heard some of those sentiments with more pleasure than I did. I did not expect so much liberality. If such advice had been followed, I should not now be standing80 here to defend points of a speculative nature. Such errors should be corrected by argument, in the arena142 of public opinion. Where I uttered these words, they should have been refuted. The witness against me says he is a preacher; had he no word in answer? could he say no word for his God? No; he, and those who employ and abet143 him, shrink from the attempt, and seek to punish in this dock opinions they cannot refute. Is this a course becoming those who say they have truth on their side?
His lordship said 'emissaries are going about.' I am no emissary, and the term as applied to me is unjust. I might, even by the admission of Mr. Bubb, 'undermine' men's religion, go about secretly disseminating144 my opinions, without danger of standing here. But I spoke openly; and you who usually have to punish dishonesty, are now called upon to punish its non-committal, for a little lying would have saved me from this charge. I have infringed145 no law, injured no man's reputation, taken no man's property, attacked no man's person, broken no promise, violated no oath, encouraged no evil, taught no immorality—set only an example of free speaking. I was asked a question, and answered it openly. I am not even charged with declaring dogmatically, 'There is no God.' I only expressed an opinion. I should hold myself degraded could I descend146 to inquire, before uttering my convictions, if they met the approval of every anonymous147 man in the audience. I never forget that other men's opinions may be correct—that others may be right as well as myself, I have put forth my own opinions openly, from a conviction of their truth; and the sentiments I cannot defend I should scorn like my prosecutors to invoke148 an attorney-general to protect. I seek a public place, where any man may refute me if he can, and convict me as wilful149 or ignorant. I should think myself degraded if I published secretly. What can we think of the morality of a law which requires secret inquiry150, which prohibits the free publication of opinion?
Mr. Justice Erskine. You must have heard me state the law, that if it be done seriously and decently all men are at liberty to state opinions.
Mr. Holyoake. Whatever the law says, if an informer can carry the words to persons interested in their suppression—if policemen can be sent to apprehend137, without warrants, the man who publicly expresses his opinions—if he can be handcuffed like a felon151, and thrust into a gaol152—if indictments153 can be brought against him, and he be put to ruinous expenses and harassing154 anxieties, however honest the expression of opinion may be—then, I say, this 'liberty-law' is a mockery. But by the word 'decent' is meant 'what those in authority think proper.' There should be no censorship of opinions; but I am told that because I spoke to ignorant people, I am criminal. To educated persons, then, I might have said what I did with impunity—
Mr. Justice Erskine. I only, after speaking of education, said that an honest man, speaking his opinions decently, was entitled to do so.
Mr. Holyoake. There is no evidence to show that my audience were unable to distinguish decency155 and propriety. But it must be already clear enough to you, gentlemen of the jury, who have been employed during the past week determining violations156 of the law, that I am placed here for having been more honest than the law happens to allow. I am unaccustomed to address a jury, and I hope to avoid the charge of presumption157 or dogmatism. I have no wish to offend the prejudices of any man in this court, and have no interest in so doing, when his lordship is armed with the power of the law to punish it. But, while I profess50 respect for your opinions, I must entertain some for my own. There are those here who think religion proper, and that it alone can lead to general happiness—I do not, and I have had the same means of judging. You say your feelings are insulted—your opinions outraged158; but what of mine? Mine, however honest, are rendered liable to punishment. I ask not equality of privileges in this respect; I seek not the power of punishing those who differ from me—nay, I should disdain159 its use. Christianity claims what she does not allow, although she says 'All men are brothers.'
It is from no disrespect to the bar that I did not give my case into the hands of counsel, but because they are unable to enter into my motives. There is a magic circle out of which they will not step; they will argue only what is orthodox; and you would have had no opportunity from them of learning my true motives, or seeing the real bearings of this case.*
* From what subsequently appeared in the Cheltenham Free
Press, I learned that some of the bar took offence at these
remarks; and one revenged himself by describing me, in the
Morning Chronicle, as 'a wretched-looking creature,
scarcely emerging from boyhood, whose wiry and dishevelled
looks, gave him the appearance of
The author of the paragraph which led to this day's proceedings applied to me the epithets162 of 'wretch160,' 'miscreant,' 'monster'—represented me as one who discoursed164 'devilism.' The Gloucester Chronicle laboured to prove that I was a malicious blasphemer, a low German student, is evidently, from his pronunciation and language, a most ignorant and illiterate165 character, and no doubt courted the present prosecution tor the sake of notoriety.'
The Cheltenham Examiner—the editor of which, I understand, is Mr. Jelinger Symons—draws a parallel between me and the reputed regicide, who has recently shot at the Queen. These are the words:—'Akin to the offence for which Holyoake has been committed is the crime for which Francis, also a mere stripling, is likely to forfeit166 his personal liberty, if not his life. The crimes of blasphemy and treason have many points of great similarity, and frequently result from the same causes; and it would not be an uninstructive task to trace out the progress of those causes which lead the minds of the unguarded to the extreme points when they become dangerous to society. Holyoake, the bold assertor of the non-existence of a God, did not become an infidel at once; and Francis, the would-be regicide, did not level his pistol at oar34 beloved sovereign without his mind having been acted and prepared by previous circumstances.... In both cases a morbid167 imagination, an affectation of superiority, a contempt for and a dissatisfaction with existing institutions, and a craving168 after notoriety, are the primary incentives169 to action,' This ungenerous and offensive parallel was drawn170 out through a long leading article. The effect, if not the object, of all this is to prejudge my case, to awaken171 all the bitter prejudices which lurk172 around religion, and to secure my condemnation174 before my trial.
Another paper,* in which justice was done me in some respects, called me a 'bigot.' I am not a bigot. I do not assume that I alone am right; nor did I speak of Deity, declaring dogmatically his non-existence. I spoke only of my own disbelief in such an existence. Of all isms I think dogmatism the worst. I do not judge other men by the agreement of their opinions with my own. I believe you consider Christianity a benefit. I regret that I feel it is not so, and I claim the privilege of saving what is true to me. I have ever been ready to acquire correct notions. I have publicly called upon parties whose duty it was to teach me—and who were well paid for teaching—to assist me in sifting175 out the truth. But they have chosen the strong arm of the law rather than strong argument. Jean Jacques Rousseau says in his 'Confessions,' 'Enthusiasm for sublime176 virtue177 is of little use in society. In aiming too high we are subject to fall; the continuity of little duties, well fulfilled, demands no less strength than heroic actions, and we find our account in it much better, both in respect to reputation and happiness. The constant esteem178 of mankind is infinitely179 better than sometimes their admiration180.' As the world goes there is much good sense in this, and I have read it to show how fully47 I accord with these sentiments. I am not aiming at sublime virtue, but rather at the continuity of little duties well fulfilled. It is enough for Me if I can be true and useful.
* The National Association Gazette.
I was greatly surprised to find the learned gentleman engaged as prosecuting181 counsel had so-little to say in reference to the case entrusted182 to his charge, but I presume it must be attributed to the fact that little could be said upon the subject. All his ingenuity183, all his legal skill could not discover an argument at all tenable against me. I certainly expected to hear him attempt to prove to you that these prosecutions184 were either useful or necessary, but he could only tell you that my sentiments were very horrible, without adducing proof that his assertions were true. He dealt liberally in inuendoes, particularly in reference to the placards exhibited previous to the lecture, and the motive for issuing them. But you have been able to glean185 from his own witness the truth of the matter. I had completed my discourse163, which was of a secular186 character, and was preparing to return home, when one Maitland questioned me on the subject of my opinions. I did not get up a meeting under one pretence187 to use it for another. I employed no scheme to allure188 an audience to listen to what I did not openly avow189, although it has been unfairly insinuated190 that I did so.
When I was first apprehended my papers were taken from me. They would not even leave me the papers necessary for my defence, and I do not know what use was made of them, or that this day the information thus unfairly obtained may not be employed against me. I will read the memorial on this subject, which I forwarded to the Secretary of State.
'Memorial of the undersigned George Jacob Holyoake, prisoner in Gloucester County Gaol, on the charge of Blasphemy, to Sir James Graham, Her Majesty's Secretary of State,
'Shewith,—That your memorialist was committed to this gaol from Cheltenham, on the vague charge of blasphemy, on June 3rd.
'That in consequence of representations made to him by the police authorities in Cheltenham, your memorialist brought with him to the gaol some private papers, hastily selected, for his defence—and that, on arriving here, the said papers were seized, and the visiting magistrate refused to allow your memorialist the use of them, or to give them up to his friends to be used for his advantage.
'That, as these papers were brought in confidence that your memorialist would have been allowed to consult his own thoughts in his own defence—and as they are no man's property but his own—and, also, as without them your memorialist will not have a fair chance of defence,—he trusts you will order them to be restored to him without delay.
'The offence with which your memorialist stands charged occurred as he was journeying homeward, in a town where he was a comparative stranger. Consequently, and owing to great bigotry on religious subjects, your memorialist has been unable to obtain bail191, and has suffered fourteen days' imprisonment193, which time he has spent in fruitless applications to the authorities here for proper books and papers to prepare his defence. Out of a list of thirty-one books submitted for that purpose only thirteen are allowed.
'That, as the trial of your memorialist is to take place at the next sessions of this county, to be holden on the 28th inst., and he is without the means of defence or hope of justice, and has a wife and two children dependent on him for support, he is placed in circumstances of peculiar194 anxiety.
'Hence your memorialist earnestly hopes that you will direct that his papers, seized as before mentioned, be immediately restored to him, and also that he be allowed free access to such works and papers as he may deem necessary for his defence, and that without further delay.
'(signed) George Jacob Holyoake.
'County Gaol, Gloucester, June 14, 1842.'
The papers were afterwards returned; but, had it not been for friends in the House of Commons, and in various parts of the country, I should have been deprived of the materials for my defence. Public opinion did for me that which Christian charity refused.*
* At the Gloucester Trinity Sessions, Mr. R. B. Cooper
stated, in contradiction of the prayer of this memorial,
that 'as soon as I mentioned that my papers were necessary
for my defence they were returned to me.' Mr. S. Jones said
he 'took my papers home, and every one I wanted for my
trial on the morrow I had given to me.' Both these
statements were untrue, and I stated so at the time in the
Cheltenham Free Press, and my assertion was never
impugned.
Strong prejudices exist against me as being a Socialist196. Your local newspapers have denounced me on this ground. To show that I deserve no condemnation on this account I shall draw your attention to the nature of Socialism. I have here a little book, stated to be published by the 'Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.' If it had been stated to be a 'society' for disseminating 'malicious knowledge' the title-page would have been correct—for a more gross series of misrepresentations were never strung together. If what it says of Socialism were true, then I might be abused; but Socialism as I have learned or explained it, would never lead to the injury of peace or the disturbance197 of public order. The first paragraph of Godwin's 'Political Justice' is an epitome199 of Socialism as developed in this country hitherto s it is 'an investigation200 concerning that form of political society, that system of intercourse201 and reciprocal action extending beyond the bounds of a single family, which shall be found most conducive202 to the general benefit—how may the peculiar and independent operation of each individual in the social state most effectually be preserved—how may the security each man ought to possess as to his life, and the employments of his faculties203 according to the dictates204 of his own understanding, be most certainly defended from invasion—how may the individuals of the human species be made to contribute most substantially to general improvement and happiness.' But I shall not content myself with one authority; and to avoid the charge of presumption, I have gathered much of my defence from other men's writings, and shall make them speak for me.
Socialists205 have been declared to have dangerous metaphysical notions. The whole question has been expressed by the poet-philosopher Goethe in four lines, translated by Ebenezer Elliott, thus—
How like a stithy is this land!
And we lie on it, like good metal
Long hammer'd by a senseless hand;
Meaning that senseless hammering and senseless legislation could neither make the dull iron into a kettle, nor a vicious people into an enlightened nation. Socialism says, all men have in them the true metal—the elements of goodness, which all governments are responsible for moulding. Socialism proposes to substitute other means than punishments for the prevention of crime, and that you may not think these chimeras207 of my own, I will read you the opinion of a Lord Cardinal208 to a certain High Chancellor209 of England, Sir Thomas More, who, in his 'Utopia.' says, 'When I was in England, the king depended much on his councils....
One day when I was dining with him there happened to be at table one of the English lawyers, who took occasion to run out in high commendation of the severe execution of justice upon thieves, "who," as he said, "were then hanged so fast that there were sometimes twenty on one gibbet!" and upon that he said, "he could not wonder enough how it came to pass, that since so few escaped there were so many thieves left, who were still robbing in all places." Upon this, I (who took the boldness to speak freely before the cardinal) said, "there was no reason to wonder at the matter, since this way of punishing thieves was neither just in itself nor good for the public; for as the severity was too great, so the remedy was not effectual; simple theft not being so great a crime, that it ought to cost a man his life: no punishment, how severe soever, being able to restrain those from robbing who can find no other way of livelihood210. In this (said I) not only you in England but a great part of the world, imitate some ill masters, that are readier to chastise211 their scholars than teach them. There are dreadful punishments enacted212 against thieves, but it were much better to make such good provisions by which every man might be put in a method how to live and so be preserved from the fatal necessity of stealing, and of dying for it."' Socialism would try to obtain a remedy for the evils which judges go round year by year lamenting213; Socialism would suggest a means of affording employment, and thus mitigate214 the crime which judges and juries are called to punish.
Such objects may be declared chimerical215, but surely it is not criminal to hope that they can be carried out, and to feel that they ought. I could read many other passages to show that under no circumstance Socialism merits that character which has been ascribed to it But I do not deem it necessary, as I think I have said enough to prove that. Nor do I want to instil217 my sentiments, but merely to disabuse218 your minds of a prejudice which has been disseminated219 to my disadvantage.
My assuming the right of free expression inculcated by Mr. Owen, and when asked a question, refusing to equivocate220, are opposed, it would appear, to the laws of this country. But this I have learned from Socialism, that there can be no public or private virtue, unless the foundation of action is the practice of truth. Passing through Cheltenham to pay a visit to a friend, I delivered a lecture. After which the words were uttered which are here indicted. When I had read the Cheltenham Chronicle, in the city of Bristol, I returned to Cheltenham. If I had been conscious of guilt51, should I have returned? On the night of my apprehension marks of kindness were shown me by the people. If I had acted disgracefully, would the people of Cheltenham have met a stranger and showed him marks of esteem and friendship? I went to the station-house and remained there all night. When taken before the magistrates, Mr. Capper told me I was not fit to be reasoned with, because I did not believe in a God, and that it was from a love of notoriety that I acted: but from the love of mere notoriety I have never uttered any sentiments, for I hold such conduct in contempt. After I was taken from the magistrates' office, I was treated with contumely at the police-station. Surgeon Pinching, finding me completely in his power, said he was sorry the days were gone by when I could hold up my head, and wished the inquisition could be put in force against such persons as myself. I was thrust into a filthy221 cell, and my hands were bolted together and the skin pinched off. I was brought to Gloucester on a sultry day, and should have been made to walk had not some friends interfered222 and obtained permission for me to ride, on paying my own fare and that of two policemen. There was no indication from my manner that I wished to make my escape, and the company of two policemen was sufficient to prevent it. It was thought if I was chained like a felon and dragged through two towns, it would wound my feelings. If these are the ways in which the truths of Christianity are to be taught, I leave you to judge of them. Two of your magistrates conversed223 with me, and shouted with much rudeness that I was a fool for holding my opinions. I never could have said this to any man, and yet such treatment I received from magistrates old enough to be my grandfathers.
Here Mr. Bransby Cooper, who sat upon the left of the Judge, was so moved by this remark, that he rose and ejaculated something in Court; but the Judge peremptorily224 commanded him to sit down.
Mr. Holyoake then read the memorial of the public meeting of the inhabitants of Cheltenham, before quoted, referring to the conduct, at the examination, of Joseph Overbury, Robert Capper, and the Rev74. T. B. Newell, D.D., magistrates.
Mr. Justice Erskine. You ought not to read any statement not authenticated225 by evidence, which reflects on any person.
Defendant. This is a petition of a public meeting.
Mr. Justice Erskine. It is not evidence.
Defendant continued. I have never been anxious under any circumstances to obtrude226 my opinions on the public. I confined myself strictly227 to the subject on which I lectured, and should not have introduced my sentiments on religion, should not have spoken another word after my lecture, if I had not been publicly questioned. I have held various situations, and in all secular ones I have strictly kept religious opinions out of view. It is known that I have taught that and that only which I have been employed to teach. In proof of this I may cite testimonials given me upon the occasion of my applying for the situation of collector at the Birmingham Botanic Gardens. They are from magistrates and gentlemen of Birmingham, and the post was one requiring a person of trust, as considerable funds would have to pass through his hands in a year.
Mr. Holyoake here quoted from numerous testimonials. One of them, from a magistrate, F. Lloyd, Esq., stated that Mr. Holyoake obtained the first prize at the Mechanics' Institute, some years ago, for proficiency228 in mathematics, a proficiency attained229, too, under most discouraging circumstances.' Another of the testimonials was from the Rev. S. Bache, one of the ministers of the New Meeting House congregation. Having read these documents, Mr. Holyoake resumed.
During one of those commercial panics, which a few years ago passed over this country like a pestilence230, my parents were suddenly reduced from a state of comparative affluence231 to one of privation. At one of these seasons my little sister became ill. While she was so the Rev. Mr. Moseley, M.A., Rector of St, Martin's, Birmingham, sent an order to us for his Easter due of fourpence. On previous occasions this demand had been cheerfully and promptly232 paid; but now, small as the sum was, it was sufficient materially to diminish the few comforts our house of illness unfortunately afforded; and it was therefore discussed whether the demand of the clergyman should be paid, or whether it should be expended233 in the purchase of some little comforts for my sick sister. Humanity decided234; and we all agreed that it should be devoted235 to this latter purpose. It was; but, I think, the very next week, a summons came for the Easter due, and two shillings and sixpence were added, because of the non-payment of "the fourpence". The payment of this could now no longer be evaded236, for in a few days a warrant of distraint would have rudely torn the bed from under her, as had been the case with a near neighbour. Dreading237 this, and trembling at the apprehension, we gathered together all the money we had, and which was being saved to purchase a little wine to moisten the parched238 lips of my dying sister, for at this time her end seemed approaching. My mother, with a heavy heart, left home to go to the Public Office. The aisles239 there were cold and cheerless like the outside this court, and there, all broken in health and spirits, worn out with watching, and distracted by that anxiety for her child a parent, under such circumstances, only could feel, she was kept from five to six hours waiting to pay the two shillings and ten-pence. When she returned all was over—my sister was dead. Gentlemen, will you wonder if, after this, I doubted a little the utility of church establishments?* and if, after the circumstances I have related, I did not think so highly of church 'as by law established' as before, can you be surprised? Can you punish me for it? [At this point many ladies wept, and the Court manifested considerable attention.]
* I have since learned that Mr. W. J. Fox read this passage
in a Sunday morning lecture on the events of the month,
delivered at South-place in the September following my
trial; and I take this opportunity of acknowledging that Mr.
Fox was the only occupant of a pulpit from whom I received a
friendly line during my entire imprisonment.
I have been told to look around the world for evidences of the truth of the Christian religion; to look upon the world and draw different conclusions. It is well for those who enjoy the smiles of fortune to say so. For them all shines brightly—for them all is fair. But I can see cause of complaint, and I am not alone in the feeling. Mr. Capel Lofft had said, 'the sours of life less offend my taste than its sweets delight it.' On this Kirke White wrote:—
Go to the raging sea, and say
'Be still!' Bid the wild lawless winds obey thy will;
Preach to the storm, and reason with despair—
But tell not misery's son that life is fair.
Thou, who in plenty's lavish18 lap hast roll'd, And every year with new delight hast told—Thou, who, recumbent on the lacquer'd barge240, Hast dropt down joy's gay stream of pleasant marge, Thou may'st extol241 life's calm, untroubled sea—The storms of misery ne'er burst on thee. Go to the mat where squalid want reclines; Go to the shade obscure where merit pines; Abide242 with him whom Penury's charms control, And bind243 the rising yearnings of his soul—Survey his sleepless244 couch, and, standing there, Tell the poor pallid245 wretch that life is fair!
Lo! o'er his manly246 form, decay'd and wan195, The shades of death with gradual steps steal on; And the pale mother, pining to decay, Weeps, for her boy, her wretched life away.
Go, child of fortune! to his early grave, Where o'er his head obscure the rank weeda wave; Behold247 the heart-wrung parent lay her head On the cold turf, and ask to share his bed. Go, child of fortune, take thy lesson there, And tell us then that life is wondrous248 fair.
As I grew up I attended missionary249 meetings, and my few pence were given to that cause. When told of heathen kings who knew not God, and caged their miserable250 victims, I shuddered at their barbarity and prayed for their conversion251. O waste of money and prayers that should have been employed on Christian men. O infantile fatuity252! Do I not reap the whirlwind for my pains? I learned the accents of piety253 from my mother's lips. She was and still is a religious woman. Whatever may be the dissent254 I entertain, I have never spoken of her opinions in the language of contempt. I have always left her (as she to her honour has left me), to enjoy her own opinions. In early youth I was religious. I question whether there is any here who have spent more time than I did as a Sunday school teacher. I have given hours, which I ought to have employed in improving myself, in improving others. It is not without giving to Christianity time and attention—without knowing what it was—that I have given it up. Some lines I contributed to a religious publication at that time, will show the tone of thought which inquiry has subsequently changed:—
THE REIGN OF TIME.
The proudest earthly buildings show,
And manhood's intellectual brow,
Betray the spoiler's power:
How soon we sink beneath his sway—
He glances, and our heads turn gray.
Though, over all this earthly ball,
Time's standard is unfurled,
And ruins loud to ruins call
Throughout this time-worn world—
And after the archangel's wand
Has wav'd o'er earth and sea,
And Time has stopped at his command,
The soul will nourish and expand
Religion—lovely, fair, and free—
Holds forth this immortality260.
By all the glories of the sky,
To mortals yet unknown—
And by the worm that ne'er shall die,
The fires that always burn—
By all that's awful or sublime,
Ye sons of men improve your time.*
It was stated by one of the magistrates that my being of no religion was no crime. I may conclude from what I heard this morning that I am not to be punished for not being religious. It was argued in, the Cheltenham Chronicle that my expressing my opinions was no crime, and I was at some loss to know what my crime was. The charge stated I was guilty of blasphemy. In the depositions261 made against me, it is stated that I was brought before the Cheltenham magistrates on a charge of felony. I believe now what I have to answer is the accusation262 of uttering certain words offensive to the Cheltenham Chronicle.
This paper stated that 'three persons were ready to give evidence on the matter.' And yet the witness says he knew nothing of it till the policeman came for him. He says they were 'chaffing' about my remarks in the office—that is, joking upon them. It does not say much for his seriousness—reporting these 'horrid263 sentiments' at night, and the next morning 'chaffing' about them. If it was an aggravation264 of my crime to have chosen an innocent subject, what would the learned counsel have said if I had chosen a guilty one? It has been sworn by the witnesses that I said I did not believe there was such a thing as a God, and an attempt has been made to make you believe that I used the term 'thing' contemptuously, but the witness admits that I did not use it in a contemptuous sense. The same word occurs in some lines by Thomas Moore:—
Man, in the sunshine of the world's new spring,
Shall walk transparent265 like some holy thing.
I must have used the word 'thing' in some such sense as it is used in these lines.
It is laid down by the Common Law, that a person denying the existence of a God is a blasphemer. It has not been shown that I did this. I merely stated my disbelief—and disbelief is not included by the law. There is a great difference between denial and disbelief. If I had said distinctly 'there is no God,' it would have been stating that I was quite sure of it. I could not have said that, because I am not sure of it. I saw reasons for disbelief, but did not assert denial. Disbelief is all I profess. Those dogmatise who affirm, rather than those who deny a proposition. Mr. Southwell put this point in its proper light:—
'If God had never been affirmed, he could not have been denied. It is a rule of logic61, and a very sensible rule, that the onus266 probandi, that is the burthen or weight of proving, rests on those who affirm a proposition. Priests have affirmed the existence of a God, but who will maintain that they have complied with the rule of logic?'*
We can only, I think, arrive at a conviction of the existence of a God by the following modes:—
1. By the medium of innate267 ideas, which we are said by some divines to possess, and which intuitively lead us to entertain the idea of a God.
2. By the senses, the sole media by which all knowledge is acquired.
3. By conjecture268.—This is employed by those who suppose there must be a God from their inability otherwise to account for the existence of the universe, and are not willing to allow it to be inexplicable269.
4. By analogy.—Comparison is the basis of this argument. Analogy is the foundation of natural theology.
5. By revelation.—In this country the Bible is said to contain the revelation of a God.
Of these it may be remarked:—
1. Innate ideas.—With regard to these, very conclusive270 reasons have been advanced by eminent271 philosophers for disbelieving that we have any. And human experience confirms this conclusion. Some nations, as the people of the Arru Islands, have no idea of a God. So this source of knowledge concerning one is, to say the least, dubious272.
2. Senses.—'No man hath seen God at any time,' is a sufficient reply to this—for the same may be affirmed of every other sense, which is here affirmed of sight.
3. Conjecture.—This defies us. We only prove our own inability and multiply difficulties. For when we suppose a God, we cannot suppose how he came, nor how he created something out of nothing, which is held by the learned to be plainly impossible.**
* Oracle of Reason, No. 31, p. 251.
** Since this time Mr. Francis William Newman has put this
argument unanswerably in these words; 'A God uncaused and
existing from eternity, is to the full as incomprehensible
as a world uncaused and existing from eternity'—'The Soul,'
p. 36. Second edition.
4. Analogy will not inform us. A small pivot273 or wheel cannot infallibly indicate to us the mechanism274 to which it belongs, nor anything conclusive as to whether the whole had only one or more makers275. So of the universe, no part can shadow forth the whole of that, nor inform us conclusively276 whether it had a creator or creators. And here it is to be observed the difficulty is greater than with machines—for a pivot or wheel is a finite part of a finite whole, and both comprehensible; but with the universe, all we can take cognisance of is but a very finite part of an infinite whole, and that whole to all men acknowledged incomprehensible. Moreover, creation can have no analogy—no one ever saw or can conceive of anything being created. So that this mode of learning the existence of a God fails. The Rev. Hugh M'Neile, M.A., minister of St. Jade's Church, Liverpool, in a lecture delivered to above four hundred of the Irish clergy29, at the Rotunda277 in Dublin, said in reference to this part of the question, 'I am convinced, I say, that, from external creation, no right conclusion can be drawn concerning the moral character of God. Creation is too deeply and disastrously278 blotted279 in consequence of man's sin, to admit of any satisfactory result from an adequate contemplation of nature. The authors of a multitude of books on this subject, have given an inadequate280 and partial induction281 of particulars. Already aware (though perhaps scarcely recognising how or whence) that "God is love," they have looked on nature for proofs of this conclusion, and taken what suited their purpose. But they have not taken nature as a whole, and collected a conclusion fairly from impartial282 premises283. They expatiate284 on the blessings285 and enjoyments287 of life, in the countless288 tribes of earth, air, and sea. But if life be a blessing286, death is a curse. Nature presents the universal triumph of death. Is this the doing of a God of love? or are there two Gods—a kind one, giving life; and an unkind one taking it away; and the wicked one invariably the victor? In external creation, exclusively and adequately contemplated289, there is no escape from Manich?ism. It is vain to say that the death of the inferior creatures is a blessing to man; for why, in the creation of a God of love, should any such necessity exist? And how would this account for the death of man himself?' So far the argument of analogy.
5. Revelation.—We have none. If others ever had, we can only determine it by human reason, and for this purpose Leslie has furnished his well-known rules. Therefore, as revelation means something superadded to reason, we cannot be said to possess it, for reason has to determine what is, and what is not revelation, and therefore is superior to it. Also, it is contended by divines that, but for the Bible we should know nothing of a God, which shows the unsatisfactory nature of the four methods of learning his existence we have gone through. And Lord Brougham contends that but for natural theology, or the analogy argument, which has been shown to be no argument at all, the Bible would have no other basis than mere tradition.
So you see, gentlemen, the philosophical difficulties besetting290 the path of a young inquirer into sacred things. These difficulties are to me insuperable, and hence I find myself incapable291 of employing language you are more fortunate in being able to adapt to your conscience.*
* The object of this passage was to show the jury the
intellectual difficulties belonging to this subject, and the
passage formed but an episode among the moral issues I
raised. A friend of mine asking an eminent divine at one of
Dr. Elliotson's seances, and who afterwards entered
parliament, what he thought of my defence. 'Oh it turned
answer. But I hope the reader will see something more in my
But it has been stated I said I would put the Deity on half-pay. After first stating that I did not believe there was a Deity, is it likely I should say I would put him on half-pay? Would you put a servant on half-pay whom you never hired or had? All my expressions went to prove that I referred to the expenses of religion. I could not suppose that there is a being capable of governing the world, and consider him good and kind, and yet have any intention of bringing him into contempt. I had no personal reference to the Deity. I made use of that figure of speech because I thought they would understand it better, and they did understand it. I was saying we had many heavy burdens to pay to capitalists and others, and that I thought it hung like a millstone round us. Sir R. Peel said, when he introduced the income-tax, that the poor man could bear no more. I said there were twenty-four millions taken from us for the support of religion, and that they would do well to reduce that one-half. Suppose, gentlemen, that I did refer to the Deity, was my notion a dishonourable one? What man of you who had enough and to spare, and seeing the people around him in poverty, would not willingly relinquish296 part of his income to give them a bare subsistence? Who will deny that in England there are honest, industrious297, hard-working men, honourable295 women, and beautiful children, who have not the means of obtaining food? Did I do him a disgrace if I thought he, who is called our Father, the Most High, would have dispensed298 with one-half of the lip-service he receives in order to give his creatures necessaries!
[It being nearly four o'clock the Jury asked leave to retire, to which Mr. Holyoake consenting, they left the Court for a short time. Some ladies who represented themselves as wives of clergymen, came round the dock offering Mr. Holyoake confections and refreshment299, and expressing their regret at the treatment he had received, and the position in which he was placed.]
Mr. Holyoake, on resuming, said—According to a calculation that has never been disputed, the
'Pay to their Clergy.
Catholics, numbering... 124,672,000... ￡6,106,000
Protestants " ... 54,046,000... 11,906,000
Greek Church " ... 41,000,000... 760,000
Total of Christians300 219,718,000 ￡18,762,000
'Of which England, for twenty-one millions of people, pays more than one-half.'* Thus the English pay five times more according to their numbers—I proposed a reduction of only one-half.
Mr. W. J. Fox has told us—'If the government of the country disposed of the mismanaged funds of the clergy, they would have sufficient for their annual needful expenditure302.'
Mr. Justice Erskine. If you can convince the jury that you only meaning was that the incomes of the clergy ought to be reduced, and that you did not intend to insult God, I should tell the jury you ought not to be convicted. You need not go into a laboured defence of that.
Mr. Holyoake. It was stated by one of the witnesses at Cheltenham that I said Christians are worshippers of Mammon. I thought it necessary for me to refer to it.
Mr. Justice Erskine. There is no evidence of that.
Mr. Holyoake. Then turn to the question What is blasphemy? In the case of Mr. Southwell, one of the witnesses for the prosecution stated his opinion that the crime was 'bringing a scandal on the religion of the magistrates.' Perhaps this is as correct a definition as can be given. It has been said to be 'an injury to God,' Men who could not string six sentences together grammatically, have told me they would defend God—men whom I should be ashamed to have defending me. But blasphemy is impossible in the sense of annoyance to God. Jonathan Edwards says—'The following things may be laid down as maxims304 of plain truth and indisputable evidence:—
'2. It will follow from hence, that God is free from everything that is contrary to happiness: and so that in strict propriety of speech there is no such thing as any pain, grief or trouble in God.
'3. Where any intelligent being is really crossed and disappointed, and things are contrary to what he truly desires, he is less pleased, or has the less pleasure, his pleasure and happiness are diminished, and he suffers what is disagreeable to him, or is the subject of something that is of a nature contrary to joy and happiness, even pain and grief.
'From this last maxim303 it follows, that if no distinction is to be admitted between God's hatred306 of sin, and his will with respect to the event and existence of sin, as the all-wise determiner of all events, under the view of all consequences through the whole com pass and series of things; I say, then, it certainly follows, that the coming to pass of every individual act of sin is truly, all things considered, contrary to his will, and that his will is really crossed in it, and that in proportion as he hates it. And as God's hatred of sin is infinite, by reason of the infinite contrariety of his holy nature to sin; so his will is infinitely crossed in every act of sin that happens. Which is as much as to say:—he endures that which is infinitely disagreeable to him, by means of every act of sin he sees committed—and so he must be infinitely crossed and suffer infinite pain every day, in millions of millions of instances, which would be to make him infinitely the most miserable of all beings.'*
But blasphemy is an antiquated307 accusation. In a work** by Col. Feyronnet Thompson, it is remarked—'what a turmoil308, what a splutter, was in this land, when men first announced that they would not eat fish, they would not bow down, they would not confess but when they liked, and this because the secret had got wind that these things were either not in the priests' own rule, or were against it! What threats of hell flames, what splashing about of fire and brimstone, what registration309 of judgments310 on men choked with a beef-steak on Friday! Look at one of those simple men in the present day, who shock themselves with the barouches, the cigars, the newspapers, and the elephants of a London Sunday, and occasionally digress to Paris, for the keener excitation of seeing Punch upon the Boulevards, and wondering where heaven reserves its thunder. And put the parallel case; that a good Austrian or Navarrese Catholic came here, and grieved his heart with our weekly doings on a Friday, to say nothing of our more wholesale311 offences for forty days together in Lent. "Such frying; such barbecuing; in no place did I see anybody having the smallest notion of a red herring! All are involved in one flood of sin and gravy312! How fathomless313 the patience of heaven, that such an island is not swallowed up of the deep!" We have looked into the rule he professes314 to go by; and we declare it is not there, but the contrary. We know we must appear in the next world with all our mutton on our heads. But we have done our best to look at the rule with the light that God has given us; and in spite of Austria or Navarre, we will take the risk of His not being angry with us, for seeing no prohibition315 of mutton there.' Thus we see that mutton-eating was at one period blasphemous.
* Quoted from 'A Commentary on the Public Discussion on the
subjects of Necessity and Responsibility,' &c By Jonathan
Jonathan, late of the United States.
** 'The Question of Sabbath Observance, tried by the
Church's own rule,' &c. By Col. Peyronnet Thompson, F.R.S,
of Queen's College, Cambridge.
Mr. Sergeant316 Talfourd told the jury, in the case of Hetherington v. Moxon, that if the government were consistent in carrying out prosecutions for blasphemy—Shakspere, Milton, Byron, Shelley, Southey—might be prohibited. This perhaps would be an agreeable result to a reverend gentleman well known in this court and county, who says all science should be destroyed; but I trust you entertain no such feelings, and that if I can show that my sentiments cannot be productive of harm, you will feel called upon to acquit96 me. I claim no inherent right of expressing my opinions, I only contend for liberty of expression because required for the public good. A doctrine was laid down by Lord John Russell upon the occasion of the presentation of the National Petition, which I will quote as a view of the subject of human rights well expressed.
'I am aware,' he said, 'that it is a doctrine frequently urged, and I perceive dwelt upon in this petition, that every male of a certain age has a right, absolute and inalienable, to elect a representative to take his place among the members in the Commons' House of Parliament. Now, sir, I never could understand that indefeasible right. It appears to me that that question, like every other in the practical application of politics, is to be settled by the institutions and the laws of the country of which the person is a native. I see no more right that a person twenty-one years of age has to elect a member of parliament than he has to be a juryman. I conceive that you may just as well say that every adult male has a right to sit upon a jury to decide the most complicated and difficult questions of property, or that every man has a right to exercise the judicial317 functions, as the people did in some of the republics of antiquity318. These things, as it appears to me, are not matters of right; but if it be for the good of the people at large, if it be conducive to the right government of the state, if it tend to the maintenance of the freedom and welfare of the people, that a certain number, defined and limited by a reference to a fixed319 standard of property, should have the right of electing members of parliament, and if it be disadvantageous to the community at large that the right of suffrage320 should be universal, then I say that on such a subject the consideration of the public good should prevail, that legislation must act upon it as on every other, and that no inalienable right can be quoted against that which the good of the whole demands.'
If Lord Russell did not, I do see a difference between the claim of an elector and the right of a juryman. The elector is chiefly concerned with his own interests, the juryman with other people's—one is simple, the other complex. But with the measure of right laid down by his lordship in the sentiments I have quoted, I perfectly accord, and if it could be shown that freedom of expression produced public harm, then I would give it up. But I believe such a right would produce good, and therefore I claim it at your hands upon the ground of public good.
In what I urge, it is not faith but reason, as far as I understand it, that I take for my guide—a rule of argument I trust you will accept. 'Reason contents me,' was inscribed321 as the motto on the seal of the letter from Sir James Graham, acknowledging the receipt of the Cheltenham memorial. If reason 'contents' the Secretary of State, and 'fountain of justice,' surely it ought to 'content' the channels through which such justice is diffused322 over society. Reason would always be preferred by us were we not differently instructed. 'Bewildered,' says Diderot, 'in an immense forest during the night, and having only one small torch for my guide, a stranger approaches and thus addresses me: "Friend, blow out thy light if thou wouldst make sure of the right path" The "forest" was the world—the "light" was my reason—-the "stranger" was a priest.'
After several quotations323 showing the dubious and often pernicious influence of sacred authority, Mr. Holyoake observed—-Religious sanctions are regarded only by the ignorant, whom they confirm in folly. The good find their sanction in the satisfaction ef a virtuous325 act performed. In an address of the Rev. F. Close, delivered a short time since at the Church of England Tradesmen and Working Men's Association of Cheltenham, he said, 'that the more a man is advanced in human knowledge, the more is he opposed to religion, and the more deadly enemy he is to the truth of God.' If this Christian minister is to be believed, then may you burn your books—forsake all mental refinement—and be equal in piety and ignorance. If Christianity is opposed to human improvement, then should all systems of ignorance be patronised by Christians. Sentiments like these would lead us to give up Boyle, Locke, and Newton, and regard them, with the Rev. Mr. Close, with detestation.
Mr. Justice Erskine. Let me see the discourse of Mr. Close from which you are quoting.
The book was handed to his lordship.
Mr. Holyoake. If the correctness of that report be doubted, I may state that the sentiments of Mr. Close were replied to by Mr. G. Berkeley.
Permit me now to draw your attention strongly to what has been said by men in authority of the impolicy of these prosecutions—that even if you were justified in inflicting326 punishment on me, it would not be wise to do so, Lord Brougham, three or four years ago, said, 'I may underrate the power of truth opposed to error, and I may overrate the good sense of my fellow country men in rejecting it, but one thing I do not overrate—the power of persecution327 to spread that which persecution only can spread.' When I walk through any of those ancient places, as I did yesterday through your beautiful cathedral, I feel the majesty they ever present, and think of the manner in which our Catholic ancestors acted on the minds of men. There were sublimity328 and pageantry and pomp to create awe329. We have none now of that beauty of architecture in our meagre churches and more meagre chapels330. They had a service more imposing331 than we ever had. Recollecting332 all these things, I have wondered how anything could be found sufficiently333 powerful to shake them off. I have wondered how Luther, with his rude vulgarity, could have effected so much. I can only account for it in this way—that when the Catholics dragged his followers334 to gaol, it was found that human feelings were stronger than human creeds335.
These prosecutions are entirely in opposition336 to the sentiments promulgated337 by yourselves, as appears from a book given me in gaol called the 'Manual of Devotion.' I amused myself by contracting the profession contained in it with the practice of my opponents. It is published by the 'Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.' In the 'Discourse concerning Prayer,' it is laid down that the 'second qualification for prayer is charity or love. There is nothing so contrary to the nature of God, nothing so wide of the true spirit of a Christian, as bitterness and wrath338, malice and envy; and therefore it is vain to think that even our prayers can be acceptable to God, till we have put on, as the elect of God, bowels339 of mercy, kindness, humbleness of mind, meekness340, long-suffering, forbearing one another, and forgiving one another, as St. Paul commands.' Gentlemen, where are these sentiments evinced in this prosecution?
The 'third qualification—Is faith. If any of you lack wisdom, says St. James, let him ask of God, but let him ask in faith.' My prosecutors have asked Mr. Bubb, have had faith in policemen, and confidence only in the 'common law.'
The 'fourth qualification is—That in all things of a temporal concern, we must exercise an entire submission341 to the will of God. A good Christian will be sure to leave the issue in God's hands.' In my case not the will of God, but the will of bigots was done, and the 'issue' left in the turnkey's hands.
The 'fifth qualification—Is that the person praying hath a good intention; that he asks for a good end. We must not pray as the revengeful man when he prays for authority, that he may have the more power to effect his evil designs.' What can be more wholly condemnatory342 of these proceedings than these instructions of the 'Manual of Devotion?'
When the 'Life of Christ,' by Dr. Strauss, appeared in Berlin, contrary to usages in such matters, the Prussian government consulted the clergy to ascertain from them whether it would not be prudent343 to prohibit this extraordinary production. The celebrated344 Bishop63 Neander was commissioned by the ecclesiastical body of Berlin, to peruse345 the book and to return an answer. Neander did so, and declared in reply, that the work submitted to his examination threatened, it was true, the demolition346 of all creeds; nevertheless, he requested that full liberty should not be denied to his adversary347, in order that full and free discussion might be the only judges between truth and error. And when asked whether it should be prosecuted349, said, 'No, I will answer it.'
Mr. Justice Erskine. That work was temperately351 written.
Mr. Holyoake. Neander did reply to it, and Strauss had the manliness352 to acknowledge that it had corrected many of his errors. Would that have been done had he been prosecuted? Dr. Strauss's work on the scriptures got him a professor's chair in Germany. In this country it would have made him amenable353 to the common law, and to one, two, or three years' imprisonment.
Gentlemen, in the pertinacity354 of my open reply to Maitland, you may find something objectionable, but I happen to be an admirer of that sentiment expressed by the honest 'Vicar of Wakefield'—'In all human institutions a smaller evil is allowed to procure355 a greater good; as in politics, a province may be given away, to secure a kingdom; in medicine, a limb may be lopt off, to preserve the body. But in religion, the law is written and inflexible356, never to do evil.' Then, gentlemen, I ought to be tolerated in the truthfulness357 of my answer. Milton, in his Prose Works,* in reference to an incident in his travels, says:—
* Milton's Prose Works, pp. 933-4, 8vo edit. Edited by
Fletcher.
'While I was on my way back to Rome, some merchants informed me that the English Jesuits had formed a plot against me, if I returned to Rome, because I had spoken too freely of religion; for it was a rule which I laid down to myself in those places, never to be the first to begin any conversation on religion—but, if any questions were put to me concerning my faith, to declare it without any reserve or fear.'
This is the rule which I myself have followed in this case.
Since his lordship—with more liberality than is customary, and with more philosophy than I expected on matters of religion (on which I hear his lordship thinks very devoutly)—has said, that any religion may be discussed in temperate350 language, it is not necessary for me to prove, as I should have done, that it would be useless liberty for me to entertain opinions without permission to publish them. The only question is whether, in the expression of these opinions, I used a proper kind of language. I think I have proved that I was far from having any of those 'malicious' feelings the indictment presupposes. Many figures of speech have been used in this court from which my feelings revolted as much as those of any person could from what I said. No allowance is made for this, and too much importance is attached to what is assumed to be ridicule358. A short time ago it was argued, that if the political squibs which are seen in shop windows were permitted to be published, they would bring government into contempt, and you would soon have no government. Their publication has been permitted. Have we no government now? I feel the utility of a government, and no force of ridicule could shake my belief in the importance of good government. So it is with religion. Nothing that is uttered, however contemptuous, can bring it into contempt, if it really is useful and beneficial. We might defy all the wits and caricaturists in the world to bring the problems of Euclid into contempt. No man can bring into contempt that which is essential and true.
The counsel who opened the case did not state whether the indictment was at statute or common law.
Mr. Justice Erskine. Common law.
Mr. Holyoake. Then, gentleman of the jury, I shall draw your attention to that, and I hope I shall be able to explain the law bearing on my case.
Mr. Justice Erskine. The jury must take the law from me. I am responsible for that.
Mr. Holyoake. I know, my lord; but still I may refer to it. A friend of mine consulted the works bearing upon the law of this case.* I have here the results of his labours, and, if I am wrong, your lordship will, in summing up, correct me.
* I was indebted to Mr. J. Homffrey Parry, barrister, for
the revision of the argument I employed.
Gentleman of the jury, the common law is a judge-made law. A judge laid down, some years ago, that to say anything against the Christian religion was an indictable offence. Another judge followed him and said the same; and at last it came not to be doubted. If I show there is no law properly made in parliament assembled, you ought to acquit me.
The offence with which I am charged is an offence at common law. There is no statute which punishes a man simply for denying the existence of God. There is a statute (9 and 10 Wm. III., c. 32) directed against those who denied the Trinity and who renounced359 Christianity. But the former part has been repealed360 in favour of Unitarians, by the 53rd Geo. III., e. 160; and the words I am charged with having spoken cannot be brought within the latter. There is a statute against profane39 cursing and swearing (19 Geo. II., c. 21), but it takes no cognisance of this offence. Human beings have also been put to death for witchcraft361 (33 Hen. VIII., c. 8; and 1 James I., c. 12), under the merciless statutes362 which were enacted in times of the grossest ignorance and superstition363; but those statutes have been repealed (9 Geo. II., c. 5). This offence, therefore, is an offence against the common law, if it is an offence at all. It is to be found in the recorded decisions of the judges, if it is to be found anywhere; and the punishment for it is in their discretion364. Had it been an offence under a statute, it would have been impossible for me to have denied the authority of the statute; but, as it is an offence at common law, it is quite competent for me to show that the authorities which have been supposed to constitute the offence do not warrant such a construction. Should your lordship even declare that you had no doubt upon the subject, it would still be competent for me to bring before you the decisions of former judges, to argue upon those decisions, and to show, if I could, that there was some mistake or error running throughout the whole of them. Your lordship, I am sure, will admit that judges are fallible, and that a blind, unreasoning submission to them no man should give. As some excuse for presuming to doubt the decision of some of your lordship's predecessors365, I shall quote the following passage from the preface to Mr. Watkin's treatise366 on Conveyancing, allowed to be a master-piece of legal sagacity and method. 'I believe,' writes that gentleman, 'it will be found, on examination, that an implicit367 submission to the assertions of our predecessors, whatever station those predecessors may have held, has been one of the most certain sources of error, Perhaps there is nothing which has so much shackled368 the human intellect, nothing which has so greatly promoted whatever is tyrannic, preposterous369, and absurd, nothing perhaps which has so much degraded the species in the scale of being as the implicit submission to individual dicta.' And he then goes on in vigorous terms to reprobate370 the practice of allowing 'authority to shoulder out common sense, or adhering to precedent in defiance371 of principle.' Upon the principle contained in this passage I shall act, in claiming the attention of your lordship, and you, gentlemen of the jury, whilst I examine the authorities for the doctrine which brings the offence with which I am charged within the jurisdiction372 of the temporal courts. Your lordship will, perhaps, refer to these books.
Mr. Justice Erskine, No need of that. If it is not an offence at common law, this indictment is worth nothing. You can take it before the fifteen judges on a writ71 of error. I sit here, not to correct the law, but merely to administer it.*
* I have been told by a legal friend of great experience,
that at this point I might have taken the judge at his word,
and have carried the case before the judges for decision;
but I was unacquainted with the forms of law in such cases,
and I moreover distrusted the judge.
Mr. Holyoake resumed. In the fourth volume of 'Blackstone's Commentaries,' p. 59, in speaking of offences against God and religion, that writer says, 'The fourth species of offences, therefore, more immediately against God and religion, is that of blasphemy against the Almighty, by denying his being or providence373, or by contumelious reproaches of our saviour, Christ. Whither also may be referred all profane scoffing374 at the holy scripture42, or exposing it to contempt and ridicule. These are offences punishable at common law by fine and imprisonment, or other infamous375 corporal punishment; for Christianity is part of the laws of England.' Blackstone quotes, in support of the first species, a volume of 'Ventris' Reports,' p. 298; and the second from the second volume of 'Strange's Reports,' p. 834. Mr. Christian, the commentator376 upon Blackstone, adds, in a note, a passage from the 'Year Book' (34 Henry VI.), folio 43.
The earliest case is that from the year book, in the 34th year of Henry VI. (1458). Mr. Christian quotes from it this passage—'Scripture est common ley, sur quel toutes manieres de leis sont fondes' (i.e., Scripture is common law, upon which all descriptions of laws are founded). Were this quotation324 correct, and did the word scripture here mean 'holy scripture,' or what is generally understood by the Bible, then I admit this passage would be a good foundation to build up Mr. Judge Blackstone's law. But it is no such thing. The case in the year book is a case of quare impedit, and, in the course of the argument the question arose whether, in a matter of induction to a benefice by the ordinary (i.e., the bishop) the common law would take notice of, or be bound by, the law or practices of the church. Where-. upon, Chief Justice Prisot says—'To such laws, which they of the holy church have in "ancient writing," it becomes us to give credence377, for such is common law, upon which all descriptions of laws are founded. And therefore, sir, we are obliged to recognise their law of the holy church—likewise they are obliged to recognise our law. And, sir, if it appears to us now that the bishop has done as an ordinary should do in such a case, then we ought to judge it good—if otherwise, bad.'
In this passage, then, there is not one word about scripture in the sense of 'holy scripture.' Judge Prisot says, 'To such laws as the church has in ancien scripture (t. e.9 ancient writing) we ought to give credence.' And what does he mean by 'laws which the church has in ancient writing?' not any laws that are to be found in the Bible, but the canon or ecclesiastical laws by which the temporal concerns of the church are guided. And the reason he uses the phrase 'ancien scripture,' or ancient writing, is that the laws were not then printed; the only record of them was in writing. Printing had not been introduced into England, and was only just discovered on the continent, the laws therefore of the spiritual and temporal courts were only to be seen in writing. And as though there should be no doubt as to his meaning, he goes on to say, 'And as we are obliged to recognise their laws (that is the ecclesiastical laws, or laws of the spiritual courts), so they are obliged to recognise our laws (that is, the laws of the temporal courts).' It must therefore be evident that this quotation of Mr. Christian is a perversion378 or mistake, a judicial forgery379 or a judicial blunder, and in either case its authority is of no value. It must be dismissed altogether from our minds in considering what the law is upon this point—that is, whether Christianity is or is not a part and parcel of the law of England. Unfortunately, however, we shall find that this case is actually made the substratum of the law. In proving, therefore, that it cannot warrant such a law, surely I prove that at common law, at least to speak against Christianity, is not an offence.
The next case is that in Ventris' Report, vol. 1, p. 293. It is called Taylor's case, and Chief Justice Hale certainly declares explicitly380 in this case, 'that Christianity is parcel of the laws of England.' But he cites no authority whatever.
In the case analysed from the year book, it is expressly said, that the common law is to be found in 'ancient writings,' and the unsupported dictum of a judge in the middle of the seventeenth century cannot be construed381 as a part of the ancient writings of the common law. Either the law already existed or it did not. If it did, the question is—where is it? If it did not, Chief Justice Hale could not then make it for the first time; and this case in Ventris' cannot be said to lay down the law. The case in the second volume of Strange is the King v. Woolston. The defendant had been convicted of writing four blasphemous discourses382 against the divinity and character of Christ; and upon attempting to move in arrest of judgment132, the court declared they would not suffer it to be debated whether to write against Christianity in general was an offence punishable in the temporal courts of common law. And they cited Taylor's case, which has been shown to be an insufficient authority, or rather no authority at all, and the King v. Hale, in the same volume of Strange, p. 416, but which was an indictment under the statute (9 & 10 Wm. HI.) for speaking against the Trinity, and therefore cannot in any way support the common law doctrine.
The first person who called attention to the utter want of authority in the common law for the dictum 'that Christianity was part of the common law,' was Jefferson, the second president of America—himself a profound lawyer, and to his references I am indebted for the foregoing authorities, which, however, have been carefully verified. Mr. Jefferson, in a letter to Major Cart-wright, to be found in vol. ii., p. 272, of his 'Memoirs,' exposes the mode in which this law was created. Alluding383 to the case of Prisot, he says, 'Finch384 in his first book, c. 3, is the first who afterwards quotes this case. He misstates it thus: "To such laws of the church as have warrant in holy scripture, our law giveth credence," and cites Prisot, mistranslating "ancien scripture" into holy scripture. This was in 1613, a century and a half after the dictum of Prisot. Wingate, in 1658, erects386 this false translation into a maxim of the common law, copying the words of Finch, but citing Prisot. Shephard, title "Religion," in 1675, copies the same mistranslation, quoting the year book, finch, and Wingate. Hale expresses it in these words, "Christianity is parcel of the laws of England," but quotes no authority. Wood, 409, ventures still to vary the phrase, and says, "that all blasphemy and prophaneness are offences by the common law," and Blackstone repeats the words of Hale.' In the case of the the King v. Carlile, decided since Mr. Jefferson wrote this letter, there was no argument as to the common law. The question was as to whether the statute (9 & 10 Wm. III.) had superseded the common law. But the common law itself was not called in question, which I submit it should be, and by a wise example superseded.
But let us see what Christianity is according to common law? We may remark—
1. Its inconsistency.—It calls blasphemy the greatest crime man can commit. Yet in the case of Hetherington v. Moxon, it permits the respectable blasphemer to go free. Blasphemy in guinea volumes it allows, but exhibits the holiest horror at it when in penny pamphlets.
2. Its barbarity, as in Peter Annet's case.—In Michaelmas term, M. 3. G. 3. Peter Annet was convicted on an information for writing 'a most blasphemous libel,' in weekly papers called the Free Inquirer, to which he pleaded guilty; in consideration of which, and of his poverty, of his having confessed his errors in an affidavit387, and of his being 74 years old, and some symptoms of wildness that appeared on his inspection388 in court, the court declared they had mitigated389 his punishment to the following: To be imprisoned390 in Newgate for one month; to stand twice in the pillory391 with a paper on his forehead, inscribed Blasphemy; to be sent to the House of Correction to hard labour for a year; to pay a fine of 6s. 8d., and to find security himself in ￡100, and two sureties in ￡50 each for his good behaviour during life.*
3. Its capriciousness.—The common law before the time of Henry VIII. was one thing, but afterwards it was another. The language which was blasphemy at the first period, was not so in the other. Those expressions which insulted God before Henry the Eighth was born, did not insult him afterwards. Henry the Eighth's opinion made the difference. Lord Commissioner392 White-locke (5 Howell's State Trials, p. 826), in Debate whether James Nayler the quaker should suffer death, remarked, 'I remember a case in our book H. 7, where the bishop committed one to prison for a heretic, and the heresy was denying that tythes were due to the parson. This at that time was a very great heresy.'
4. Its disregard of equal justice.—A British subject would be punished for firing into a Turkish vessel393; but he is not punishable for attacking the captain and sailors with Bibles and tracts394, which, if they read and believe, will make them apostates395 from the faith of Mahomet, and blasphemers of the Koran. While on terms of amity396 with the Sublime Porte, the laws of England restrain us from despoiling397 them of their property, but not from despoiling them of their religion.**
* Blackstone's Reports, p. 305.
** Vide Freethinker's Information for the People.
5. It debases religion as best set forth.—'Religion (says Miss Martineau) is, in its widest sense, "the tendency of human nature to the infinite;" and its principle is manifested in the pursuit of perfection in any direction whatever. It is in this widest sense that some speculative atheists have been religious men; religious in their efforts after self-perfection; though unable to personify their conception of the infinite. In a somewhat narrower sense, religion is the relation which the highest human sentiments bear towards an infinitely perfect being. There can be no further narrowing than this. Any account of religion which restricts it within the boundaries of any system, which connects it with any mode of belief, which implicates398 it with hope of reward, or fear of punishment, is low and injurious, and debases religion into superstition.' How much more is religion degraded that is made the subject of reward and punishment here?
Thus speaks the common law upon these points, and thus, as part of the common law, speaks Christianity. Will you, by a verdict of guilty this day, send forth to the world this card of credentials399 of the religion of Jesus?
The intention of a libel constitutes its criminality. It is for you, gentlemen, to say whether I knowingly, wickedly, and maliciously offended the law? Malice is necessary to a libel—conscientious words are allowable, 'Contumely and contempt are what no establishment can tolerate: but on the other hand it would not be proper to lay any restraint upon rational and dispassionate discussions of the rectitude and propriety of the established mode of worship.' 4 Bla. Com. 51; 1 Pmp. 219. And Mr. Starkie, on the subject, says 'that it may not be going too far from the principles and decisions, that no author or preacher who fairly and conscientiously400 promulgates401 the opinions with whose truth he is impressed for the benefit of others, is for so doing amenable as a criminal, that a malicious and mischievous402 intention is in such case the broad boundary between right and wrong; and that if it can be collected from the offensive levity403 with which so serious a subject is treated, or from other circumstances, that the act of the party was malicious, then, since the law has no means of distinguishing between different degrees of evil tendency, if the matter published contain any such tendency, the publisher becomes amenable to justice.'*
* Starkie on Libel, pp. 496-7.
As to the duty of the jury, I have Lord Chief Justice Abbott's opinion, in his charge to the jury in summing up the evidence against Mr. Joseph Russell at the Warwick Summer Assizes, on Friday, August 13, 1819, for a political libel, being Mr. Hone's 'Parody404 on the litany.' Mr. Russell argued that as Hone had been acquitted405 for publishing it, he also ought to be. 'No one,' says his lordship, 'is more inclined than myself to speak reverently406 of the decision of juries. But, gentlemen, you cannot, under the sanction of an oath, take the verdict of those juries either directly or indirectly407 as your guide in the verdict you are called upon to give in this case. Those juries, no doubt, returned their verdicts honestly and conscientiously according to the evidence that was layed before them. What that evidence was you can know nothing of. You are to try the question by your own consciences and by your own reason. They might have been right in their decision, and you should be careful that you are right in yours.'
After this, you will see it is clear that though a jury had before found a person guilty of the offence I am charged with, it will be no justification of your doing so too. Here Mr. Holyoake, perceiving that he would be heard fairly, and that no attempts to put him down were practised, laid aside a handful of notes, and said:—
I have to thank your lordship, and you, gentlemen of the jury, for the courtesy and attention with which I have been heard. Gentlemen, if I have occupied you long you will find my apology in the circumstance that your verdict against me will occupy me longer. I could wish that justice to me and your convenience had permitted brevity. The length of my defence has originated with the charge against me, and not with myself.
It is said, that when Southey was asked if he were not ashamed of having written Wat Tyler, he answered, no more ashamed than I am of having been young. Meaning, any man may err9 in youth. So I erred10 in being religious in my early days. If I am not religious now, deem me not criminal. Religion never did me a service, how then should I love it? But it assailed409 my youth with gloomy dogmas, now it assails410 my liberty.
Gentlemen, if during my address to you I have offended by the frankness of my avowals, it has not proceeded from a disregard of your feelings, but from the belief that, as men, you would prefer independence to servility of speech.
Of the nature of the charge against me I add no further word. My only crime has been the discharge of what I considered a duty. For my difference in opinion with you upon the question of Deity, I offer no apology. I have made no contract to think as you do, and I owe you no obligation to do it. If I commanded you to abjure411 your belief, you would disregard it as impertinence, and if you punish me for not adjuring412 mine, how will you reconcile it with 'doing as you would wish to be done unto?'
Had I said, that there is no God, still I should not deserve the penalties of the law. If I point to the wrong I see in this Christian country, and ask, is this Christianity? you would reply, 'No; what you refer to results from men who live without God in the world.' Then, gentlemen, would you punish me for simply saying that which other men, unpunished, are every day doing?
If I have said that religious revenues should be reduced one half, I spoke only the dictates of humanity at this season of national suffering. Surely it is not blasphemous to argue that human misery should be alleviated413 at the expense of spiritual pride.
I ask not equal rights with yourselves. You, as Christians, can imprison192 those who differ from you. I do not offend your pride by asking to be admitted your equals here. I desire not such privileges. I claim merely the right to speak my convictions; to show a man the right path when I think he takes the wrong one.
It is a melancholy414 maxim in these courts of law, that the greater the truth the greater the libel; and so it would be with me this day could I demonstrate to you that there is no Deity. The more correct I am the severer would be my punishment, because the law regards the belief in a God to be the foundation of obedience415 among men. But I trust I have convinced you that my views of this question are compatible with the practice of all our duties to our fellow-men, borne out by eminent authority and long experience.
Setting aside the reprobation416 of persecution by Middleton, by Clarke, by Latimer, and other divines I have quoted; Leslie, Reid, and Bulwer have contended that the objections of the sceptic merely strengthen the fabric417 of piety they pretend to assail408. Gentlemen, which is to be believed, divines and philosophers, or the common law? These persons speak as though they believed Christianity to be true; the common law punishes as though it knew it to be false.
If the state religion be true, my opinion can never overcome it; and by convicting me you publish your consciousness of error in the cause you are placed there to defend as truth. If God be truth you libel him and his power, and publish the omnipotence of error.
When in gaol, I one day opened the rules drawn up by the judges. The 167th opens thus: 'No prisoner shall lie.' Now, gentlemen, how is a man to act under these circumstances in which I am placed? If you find me guilty upon the indictment before you, my case stands in this manner—if I do not lie you imprison me, and if I do you punish me. Turning back to the morality of ancient days, and meditating418 with delight on their noble sincerity and love of truth, am I to count it a misfortune to live in modern times and among a Christian people?
In your churches, as I have read to you, you implore419 that truth and justice may descend among men, and: the supplication420 is a noble one. Gentlemen, will you pray for truth in your churches and brand it in your courts?
The atmosphere of your gaols421 as little assimilates with my taste as their punishments will accord with my constitution, I seek not these things, I assure you, but when they lie in the path of duty I trust I shall ever prefer them to a dereliction from it.
But, gentlemen, supposing that they are my sentiments that you are requested to punish; you should first do yourselves the justice to reflect what has been said about them and insinuated in this court. Learned divines, and sage216 writers on atheism422, agree that it is too absurd to need refutation—too barren to satisfy, too monstrous423 to attract, too fearful to allure, too dumb to speak, and too deathly not to appal21 its own votaries424. It is styled too grave to entertain youth, and too devoid425 of consolation426 for the trembling wants of age—too abstract for the comprehension of the ignorant, and too unreasonable427 to gain the admiration of the intelligent. That it is alarming to the timid, and disquieting428 to the brave-that it negatives everything, and sets up nothing, and is so purely429 speculative that it can never have a practical bearing on the business of life. Gentlemen, will you disturb the harmony of these conclusions by a verdict against me, and attack that which never existed, and place upon the grave records of this court a slaying430 of the self-slain? Will you thus draw attention to a subject you perhaps think had better be forgotten, and create a conviction that it must be a greatly important one, since you erect385 it into public notice by directing the thunders of the law at young and comparatively inexperienced believer in its principle?
Would you test my opinions by my emotions on the bed of death? Let me assure you, that if men can expect to die in peace who can send their fellow men to a gaol because of honest difference of opinion, I have nothing to fear.
I am told I may hold opinions, but must keep them to myself—which means, I may know and feel what is right, but must never do it. I must see my fellow-men in error, but never put them right. Must live every day below the standard of right my sense of duty and conscience sets up, and all my life long 'prove all things' and never 'hold fast to the good.'
The indictment charges me with having 'wickedly, maliciously, and with evil design,' against the peace of the Queen, uttered certain words. What shadow of evidence has been adduced to substantiate431 this extravagant432 charge?
Will you suffer this court to proclaim the sacred nature of an oath, and openly violate it in the same hour and under the same roof? I might ask in the spirit of that Christianity you sit there to administer, how do you propose to answer to your God in that day when the secrets of all hearts are to be opened, when all dissembling is to be exposed, and all perjury433 punished; how do you pro-pose to answer for having invoked434 the name of God in this assembly only to disregard it, on the poor plea of precedent—that others have done so before? For, gentlemen, there is nothing else that even the subtlest sophistry435 can conjure436 up to justify you. But I best prefer appealing to you as honest men, in the spirit of my own reasoning, and thinking; as men with an eye to the improvement of mankind, who would break the unjust shackles437 that bind them, who would discard prejudice in order to be just, who will not condemn173 me because I am not rich, and who will listen to humanity rather than to bigotry, and respect truthfulness wherever you may find it. I believe that in every honest heart there is a sense of rectitude that rises superior to creeds, that respects all virtue and protects all truth, that asks for no names and seeks no precedents438 before resolving to do rightly, that fears no man's frowns, and dares to be just without custom's permit. To this feeling, gentlemen, only do I appeal, and by its verdict I am willing to abide.
Mr. Justice Erskine: Gentlemen of the jury, although the lengthened439 address of the defendant has demanded from you so long endurance, in this vitiated atmosphere, I still trust we shall have enough of power left to direct our minds to the parts of this case which are important. The greater part of the time has been wasted on subjects with which you have nothing to do. We are not sitting here as a deliberative assembly to consider whether in respect of such cases as this it is politic198 or wise to imprison for opinions—whether men ought to be punished for uttering such sentiments—and I shall have nothing to say to you on that point. We have to decide on the law as we find it. I shall make no law—the judges made no law, but have handed it down from the earliest ages. I should have no more power to alter this than to say the eldest440 son is not the heir of his father. Allusion441 has been made to some expressions of mine, when in the course of my duty I directed the attention of the grand jury to these cases. Certainly the printed report was highly incorrect. I said nothing to prejudice them. Inasmuch as this offence directly tended to take away that foundation on which real morality can alone be safely based, I told them what I feel, that without religion there is no morality. I recommended that that foundation may be made by early education and habits of thought, but in so doing I did not mean to prejudge, nor do I seem to have been considered as doing so, I am not going to lay down as law that no man has a right to entertain opinions opposed to the religion of the state, nor to express them. Man is only responsible for his opinions to God, because God only can judge of his motives, and we arrogate442 his duties if we judge of men's sentiments. If men will entertain sentiments opposed to the religion of the state we require that they shall express them reverently, and philosophers who have discussed this subject all agree that this is right Mr. Archdeacon Paley has stated this in language so plain, far better than any words I could supply myself. 'Serious arguments are fair on all sides. Christianity is but ill-defended by refusing audience or toleration to the objections of unbelievers. But whilst we would have freedom of inquiry restrained by no laws but those of decency, we are entitled to demand, on behalf of a religion which holds forth to mankind assurances of immortality, that its credit be assailed by no other weapons than those of sober discussion and legitimate443 reasoning.' Our law has adopted that as its rule, and men are not permitted to make use of indecent language in reference to God and the Christian religion, without rendering444 themselves liable to punishment. You have had a great number of books read to you, arguing whether it was politic to prosecute348 in such cases. One of the sentiments was a dignitary's reply, 'I will answer it.' That points out the difference in these cases.
Sober argument you may answer, but indecent reviling445 you cannot, and therefore the law steps in and punishes it. You have been told you have to consider what is blasphemy. He asked the witness what he considered blasphemy, and he gave him a very sensible answer. What you have to try is, whether the defendant wickedly and devisedly did intend to bring the Christian religion into contempt among the people, by uttering words of and concerning Almighty God, the holy Scriptures, and the Christian religion. The charge is, that he uttered these words with the intention of bringing Almighty God, the Christian religion, and the holy Scriptures, into contempt. You are not called upon to say whether in your judgment the opinions of the defendant are right or wrong—whether it is right or wrong that words like these should be punished, but whether he uttered these words with the intent charged in the indictment. These words were proved by a witness who admits that others were used, that they did not follow consecutively446, and that other words were interspersed447. It is right that you should have the whole set before you, for a man is not to be judged for what is partly set before you, and therefore it was necessary you should have the whole of what was said. The way in which the witness related the statements made by defendant was this: He said he had been lecturing on 'Home Colonisation, Emigration, and Poor-Laws superseded.' After the lecture had been closed, some man whose name he did not then know, said the lecturer had been speaking of our duty to our fellow-men, but he had not spoken of our duty to our God, and it is important that you should notice that the words were not the subject of the lecture, but uttered in answer to a question put to him. There is no evidence that he intended to have said anything—there is no evidence that this person is a friend of the other person, or that this question was asked so as to give him an opportunity of uttering these sentiments,* If that had been the case it would have made it worse than if he had introduced it. This challenge having been made by this person, whoever it was, the defendant said—'I am of no religion at all; I do not believe in such a thing as a God.' There is nothing in the introduction of the word 'thing' to show that he intended to-treat the subject with levity and contempt. You might take it that he said he did not believe there is such a being as a God.
the jury never entered into my imagination. The evidence
could not have given the jury any such idea, and I was
pained and astonished to hear the judge employ it.
The witness went on: 'He said the people of this country are too poor to have any religion, he would serve the Deity as the government did the subaltern officers—place him on half-pay; I was near the door; you said the reason was the expense of religion. And then he was asked as to his opinion of blasphemy. He is then cross-examined as to his knowledge of some report made by another person. You did not lay any emphasis on the word thing; you said the word in the ordinary tone of voice.' There is something which defendant has alleged449 himself to have stated* which gives a stronger sting than that which was given by the witness—'I flee the Bible as a viper450.' The question is whether these words were uttered with the intention of bringing God and the Christian religion into contempt. Then the charge is made out, for I tell you that it is an offence at common law. If it is not an offence, the indictment is not worth the parchment it is written upon—if there is no such authority as that which I have laid down. Any man who treats with contempt the Christian religion, is guilty of an indictable misdemeanour. You have to consider the language and a passage read to you from a charge of a learned judge. 'It may not be going too far to state, that no author or preacher is forbidden stating his opinions sincerely. By maliciously is not meant malice against any particular individual, but a mischievous intent. This is the criterion, and it is a fair criterion, if it can be collected from the offensive levity in which the subject is treated, if the matter placed in the indictment contains any such tendency.' If the words had appeared in the course of a written paper you would have entertained no doubt that the person who had uttered these words had uttered them with levity. The only thing in his favour is, that it was not a written answer. The solution given by the defendant is, that although his opinions are unhappily such that he has no belief in a God, he had no intention of bringing religion into contempt. He went on to state that he considered it the duty of the clergymen of the establishment to have reduced their incomes one-half. If he had meant this, he ought to have made use of other language. You will dismiss from your minds all statements in newspapers, or other statements made out of court, and consider it in reference to the evidence. If you are convinced that he uttered it with levity, for the purpose of treating with contempt the majesty of Almighty God he is guilty of the offence. If you think he made use of these words in the heat of argument without any such intent, you will give him the benefit of the doubt. If you are convinced that he did it with that object you must find him guilty, despite of all that has been addressed to you. If you entertain a reasonable doubt of his intention, you will give him the benefit of it.
* In the report of my original speech to Maitland, which I
read to the court from the Oracle.
The jury, after a very brief deliberation, returned a verdict of Guilty.
[One of the jury was a Deist, a professed451 friend of free speech, and who had said that he never could convict me, but he wanted courage when the hour of the verdict came, and gave in against me. For myself, I never for a moment expected an acquittal. During the few moments of the jury's consultation452, I took my watch from my neck and gave it, with my keys, to my friend, Mr. Knight Hunt. My papers I consigned453 to my friend Mr. W. B. Smith, as for all I knew they might the next moment become the property of the court by virtue of the sentence.]
Mr. Justice Erskine. George Jacob Holyoake, if you had been convicted as the author of that paper which Adams has been convicted of publishing, my sentence must have been very severe. But, although the name is the same, there is no evidence of it.* You have been convicted of uttering language, and although yom have been adducing long arguments to show the impolicy of these prosecutions, you are convicted of having uttered these words with improper levity. The arm of the law is not stretched out to protect the character of the Almighty; we do not assume to be the protectors of our God, but to protect the people from such indecent language. And if these words had been written for deliberate circulation, I should have passed on you a severer sentence. You uttered them in consequence of a question—I have no evidence that this question was put to draw out these words. Proceeding26 on the evidence that has been given, trusting that these words have been uttered in the heat of the moment, I shall think it sufficient to sentence you to be imprisoned in the Common Gaol for Six calendar months.
* This is another of those unwarranted suppositions in which
the judge ought not to have indulged. 'That paper' was
written by my friend Mr. Chilton, Editor of the Oracle in my
absence, and signed with his initials. The judge might have
known that I was in Gloucester Gaol when it was written and
published. I should have stopped the judge and corrected
him, but I feared by seeming to separate myself from Adams,
to be thought capable of saving myself at his expense, or
exposing him to new rigour.
Mr. Justice Erskine. No; thieves and felons are sentenced to the Penitentiary455, you to the Common Gaol.
What was advanced by the counsel and the judge has been rendered in full in the foregoing report, but I have contented457 myself with an abstract of what I urged myself. The Times said I quoted from more than thirty authors, which is very likely; but it was not because I was not sensible of the good taste of brevity that I occupied the bench so long. I was standing that day in court fourteen hours, and, including the cross examinations, I was speaking more than eleven hours. I prepared notes to last me two days; and after the first six hours, my voice, usually shrill458 and weak, became full and somewhat sonorous459. I could have spoken all night, and I should have done it had the judge attempted to put me down. But I willingly acknowledge that, on the whole, the conduct of the judge was fair to me, and patient to a degree that inspired me with great respect for the dignity of the bench, and I dedicated460 my 'Short and Easy Method with the Saints' to Mr. Justice Erskine, as an actual expression of my respect. The governor of the gaol one day said to me, that I ought not to regret six months' imprisonment after occupying the court and public so many hours. I did not regret it. Indeed, I more deserved the sentence for the length of my defence than for the words for which I was indicted. But it was the menace of the magistrates (before recounted) that I should not be heard, that did me the harm, and exposed me to the imputation of wanting good sense, which is a worse imputation than that of wanting orthodoxy. This came of inexperience in imprisonment. The menaces of magistrates will not so mislead me another time.
When I now read the notices of these proceedings which I furnished to the Oracle at the time, I smile at the juvenility461 of comment in which I indulged. When similarly-worded reports reach me for the Reasoner, my practice is to extract the simple facts—and, of course, the writers remonstrate462 with me; but how grateful should I be now if some one had done the same by me then. The principle on which we proceeded with our Oracle was that every man should express himself in his own words and in his own way, and we thought it a crime against freedom to distinguish between weak comment and the report of essential facts, or the expression of vital principle. The report of the proceedings rendered in these pages is given in some measure upon the rule of discrimination which I have described. But, in this, I have been impartial to others, and have omitted many things on the part of my opponents which I believe they would not repeat, and which I, therefore, have no wish to perpetuate463. The remaining variations between this report and that which formerly464 appeared will be found to be partly on the side of greater accuracy in some respects, and more fulness in others. The original report presented most of the quotations, calling them a string of pearls, but left in a very unravelled465 state the string which tied them—and hence they read like abrupt466 interpolations. I have now given the connecting observations, the spirit of the extracts, and, in cases where the extracts have not since that time grown familiar to the public ear, I have given them also.
The influence of my defence upon the public at Gloucester and Cheltenham, notwithstanding the difficulties under which I laboured, was in my favour beyond my expectation. The newspapers stated that the court and jury were attentive467 throughout, and the numbers who thronged468 the court behaved in the most decorous manner, testifying their interest in the proceedings by a uniform silence, manifesting neither approbation469 nor disapprobation.' Several newspapers gave nine or ten columns of the proceedings, which was valuable propagandism. And it is due to the Cheltenham Examiner (whose parallel between me and Francis the reader will not have forgotten), to state that it gave an effective rendering of my defence, and added these compensatory words to its report:—'The defendant spoke throughout in a temperate manner, and his defence appeared to tell in his favour, so far as regarded the honesty of his motives.'
Let me say here that my grateful acknowledgments are due to the editor of the Cheltenham Free Press. That paper reported whatever concerned my liberty, my conscience, or my character. It risked much in defending, alone among its local contemporaries, the freedom of speech violated in my person. It opened its columns to Goodwyn Barmby's proclamations, to Catherine Barmby's letters, to Richard Carlile's defences, and to the numerous communications of my friends on my behalf.
My acknowledgments are also due to the Weekly Dispatch. On my visiting London 'Publicola,' then Captain Williams, invited me to call upon him, and inform him of my position with respect to the pending trial; and his able Letters to Justice Erg-kine, after my conviction, produced great uneasiness at the gaol, and each number of the Dispatch was awaited for some weeks by the authorities around me, as I learned from the gaolers, with anxiety.
My defence, considered as a defence of the wide and momentous470 question of atheism, was crude enough. No one can be more sensible of that than I am. On the moral aspects of atheism and its relation to public polity I feared to enter, lest in my own newness to the study of so large a subject I should compromise it by unskilfulness of statement; I therefore confined myself to pleading that the right of public expression was the sequence of the right of private judgment—that the right of expression was consonant471 to the common law as well as to reason, and that the right of expression being necessary to private morality, it could not be incompatible472 with the public peace.
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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trespassing
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| [法]非法入侵 | |
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annoyance
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| n.恼怒，生气，烦恼 | |
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javelin
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| n.标枪，投枪 | |
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prosecutors
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| 检举人( prosecutor的名词复数 )； 告发人； 起诉人； 公诉人 | |
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consternation
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| n.大为吃惊，惊骇 | |
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bigotry
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| n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等 | |
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err
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| vi.犯错误，出差错 | |
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erred
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| 犯错误，做错事( err的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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ferocious
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| adj.凶猛的，残暴的，极度的，十分强烈的 | |
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humbleness
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| n.谦卑，谦逊；恭顺 | |
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rustic
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| adj.乡村的，有乡村特色的；n.乡下人，乡巴佬 | |
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abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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humiliation
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frightful
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lavish
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pastors
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| n.（基督教的）牧师( pastor的名词复数 ) | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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appal
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| vt.使胆寒，使惊骇 | |
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appalling
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| adj.骇人听闻的，令人震惊的，可怕的 | |
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infamy
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elicited
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| 引出，探出( elicit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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abjectness
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proceeding
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proceedings
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par
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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tract
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heresy
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impatience
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applied
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oar
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advantageous
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indictment
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malicious
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profanely
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profane
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| adj.亵神的，亵渎的；vt.亵渎，玷污 | |
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almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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43
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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44
reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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45
divers
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| adj.不同的；种种的 | |
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46
maliciously
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| adv.有敌意地 | |
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47
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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48
deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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49
violation
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| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
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50
profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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51
guilt
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| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
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52
prosecution
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| n.起诉，告发，检举，执行，经营 | |
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53
defendant
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| n.被告；adj.处于被告地位的 | |
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54
magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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55
magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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56
disinterested
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| adj.不关心的，不感兴趣的 | |
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57
shuddered
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| v.战栗( shudder的过去式和过去分词 )；发抖；（机器、车辆等）突然震动；颤动 | |
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58
miller
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| n.磨坊主 | |
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59
ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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60
omnipotence
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| n.全能，万能，无限威力 | |
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61
logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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62
philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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63
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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64
poultry
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| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
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65
penal
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| adj.刑罚的；刑法上的 | |
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66
statute
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| n.成文法，法令，法规；章程，规则，条例 | |
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67
censure
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| v./n.责备；非难；责难 | |
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68
justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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69
courteously
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| adv.有礼貌地，亲切地 | |
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70
indicted
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| 控告，起诉( indict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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71
writ
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| n.命令状，书面命令 | |
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72
blasphemous
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| adj.亵渎神明的，不敬神的 | |
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73
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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74
rev
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| v.发动机旋转，加快速度 | |
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75
vendor
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| n.卖主；小贩 | |
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76
blasphemy
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| n.亵渎，渎神 | |
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77
allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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78
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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79
diabolical
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| adj.恶魔似的，凶暴的 | |
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80
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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81
dilate
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| vt.使膨胀，使扩大 | |
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82
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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83
superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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84
recollect
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| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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85
revile
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| v.辱骂，谩骂 | |
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86
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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87
subvert
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| v.推翻；暗中破坏；搅乱 | |
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88
concocted
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| v.将（尤指通常不相配合的）成分混合成某物( concoct的过去式和过去分词 )；调制；编造；捏造 | |
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89
chaff
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| v.取笑，嘲笑；n.谷壳 | |
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90
galleys
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| n.平底大船，战舰( galley的名词复数 )；（船上或航空器上的）厨房 | |
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91
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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92
irrelevant
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| adj.不恰当的，无关系的，不相干的 | |
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93
straightforwardly
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| adv.正直地 | |
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94
insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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95
malice
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| n.恶意，怨恨，蓄意；[律]预谋 | |
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96
acquit
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| vt.宣判无罪；(oneself)使(自己)表现出 | |
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97
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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98
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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99
brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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100
counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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101
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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102
speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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103
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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104
vindicate
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|
| v.为…辩护或辩解，辩明；证明…正确 | |
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105
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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106
apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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107
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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108
intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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109
improper
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|
| adj.不适当的，不合适的，不正确的，不合礼仪的 | |
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110
judicious
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| adj.明智的，明断的，能作出明智决定的 | |
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111
imputation
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| n.归罪，责难 | |
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112
propriety
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| n.正当行为；正当；适当 | |
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113
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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114
constable
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| n.(英国)警察，警官 | |
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115
emanate
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| v.发自，来自，出自 | |
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116
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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117
perusal
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| n.细读，熟读；目测 | |
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118
conveyance
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| n.(不动产等的)转让，让与；转让证书；传送；运送；表达；（正）运输工具 | |
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119
pending
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| prep.直到，等待…期间；adj.待定的；迫近的 | |
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120
justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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121
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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122
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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123
justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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124
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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125
glorify
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| vt.颂扬，赞美，使增光，美化 | |
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126
infraction
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| n.违反；违法 | |
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127
precedent
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| n.先例，前例；惯例；adj.在前的，在先的 | |
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128
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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129
oracle
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| n.神谕，神谕处，预言 | |
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130
opprobrious
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| adj.可耻的，辱骂的 | |
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131
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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132
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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133
saviour
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| n.拯救者，救星 | |
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134
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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135
folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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136
apprehended
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| 逮捕，拘押( apprehend的过去式和过去分词 )； 理解 | |
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137
apprehend
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| vt.理解，领悟，逮捕，拘捕，忧虑 | |
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138
imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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139
manure
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| n.粪，肥，肥粒；vt.施肥 | |
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140
precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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141
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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142
arena
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| n.竞技场，运动场所；竞争场所，舞台 | |
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143
abet
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| v.教唆，鼓励帮助 | |
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144
disseminating
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| 散布，传播( disseminate的现在分词 ) | |
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145
infringed
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| v.违反（规章等）( infringe的过去式和过去分词 )；侵犯（某人的权利）；侵害（某人的自由、权益等） | |
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146
descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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147
anonymous
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| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
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148
invoke
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| v.求助于(神、法律)；恳求，乞求 | |
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149
wilful
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| adj.任性的，故意的 | |
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150
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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151
felon
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| n.重罪犯；adj.残忍的 | |
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152
gaol
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| n.(jail)监狱；(不加冠词)监禁；vt.使…坐牢 | |
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153
indictments
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| n.（制度、社会等的）衰败迹象( indictment的名词复数 )；刑事起诉书；公诉书；控告 | |
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154
harassing
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| v.侵扰，骚扰( harass的现在分词 )；不断攻击（敌人） | |
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155
decency
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| n.体面，得体，合宜，正派，庄重 | |
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156
violations
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| 违反( violation的名词复数 )； 冒犯； 违反（行为、事例）； 强奸 | |
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157
presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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158
outraged
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| a.震惊的，义愤填膺的 | |
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159
disdain
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| n.鄙视，轻视；v.轻视，鄙视，不屑 | |
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160
wretch
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| n.可怜的人，不幸的人；卑鄙的人 | |
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161
dingy
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| adj.昏暗的，肮脏的 | |
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162
epithets
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| n.（表示性质、特征等的）词语( epithet的名词复数 ) | |
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163
discourse
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| n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述 | |
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164
discoursed
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| 演说（discourse的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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165
illiterate
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| adj.文盲的；无知的；n.文盲 | |
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166
forfeit
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| vt.丧失；n.罚金，罚款，没收物 | |
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167
morbid
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| adj.病的；致病的；病态的；可怕的 | |
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168
craving
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| n.渴望,热望 | |
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169
incentives
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| 激励某人做某事的事物( incentive的名词复数 )； 刺激； 诱因； 动机 | |
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170
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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171
awaken
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| vi.醒，觉醒；vt.唤醒，使觉醒，唤起，激起 | |
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172
lurk
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| n.潜伏，潜行；v.潜藏，潜伏，埋伏 | |
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173
condemn
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| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
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174
condemnation
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| n.谴责; 定罪 | |
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175
sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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176
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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177
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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178
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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179
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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180
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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181
prosecuting
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| 检举、告发某人( prosecute的现在分词 )； 对某人提起公诉； 继续从事（某事物）； 担任控方律师 | |
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182
entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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183
ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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184
prosecutions
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| 起诉( prosecution的名词复数 )； 原告； 实施； 从事 | |
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185
glean
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| v.收集(消息、资料、情报等) | |
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186
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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187
pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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188
allure
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| n.诱惑力，魅力；vt.诱惑，引诱，吸引 | |
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189
avow
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| v.承认，公开宣称 | |
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190
insinuated
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| v.暗示( insinuate的过去式和过去分词 )；巧妙或迂回地潜入；（使）缓慢进入；慢慢伸入 | |
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191
bail
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| v.舀（水），保释；n.保证金，保释，保释人 | |
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192
imprison
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| vt.监禁，关押，限制，束缚 | |
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193
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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194
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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195
wan
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| (wide area network)广域网 | |
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196
socialist
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| n.社会主义者；adj.社会主义的 | |
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197
disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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198
politic
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| adj.有智虑的；精明的；v.从政 | |
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199
epitome
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| n.典型，梗概 | |
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200
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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201
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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202
conducive
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| adj.有益的，有助的 | |
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203
faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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204
dictates
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| n.命令，规定，要求( dictate的名词复数 )v.大声讲或读( dictate的第三人称单数 )；口授；支配；摆布 | |
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205
socialists
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| 社会主义者( socialist的名词复数 ) | |
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206
thumping
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| adj.重大的，巨大的；重击的；尺码大的；极好的adv.极端地；非常地v.重击(thump的现在分词)；狠打；怦怦地跳；全力支持 | |
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207
chimeras
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| n.（由几种动物的各部分构成的）假想的怪兽( chimera的名词复数 )；不可能实现的想法；幻想；妄想 | |
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208
cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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209
chancellor
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| n.(英)大臣；法官；(德、奥)总理；大学校长 | |
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210
livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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211
chastise
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| vt.责骂，严惩 | |
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212
enacted
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| 制定（法律），通过（法案）( enact的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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213
lamenting
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| adj.悲伤的，悲哀的v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的现在分词 ) | |
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214
mitigate
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| vt.（使）减轻，（使）缓和 | |
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215
chimerical
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| adj.荒诞不经的，梦幻的 | |
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216
sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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217
instil
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| v.逐渐灌输 | |
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218
disabuse
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| v.解惑；矫正 | |
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219
disseminated
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| 散布，传播( disseminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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220
equivocate
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| v.模棱两可地，支吾其词 | |
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221
filthy
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| adj.卑劣的；恶劣的，肮脏的 | |
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222
interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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223
conversed
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的过去式 ) | |
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224
peremptorily
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| adv.紧急地，不容分说地，专横地 | |
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225
authenticated
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| v.证明是真实的、可靠的或有效的( authenticate的过去式和过去分词 )；鉴定，使生效 | |
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226
obtrude
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| v.闯入；侵入；打扰 | |
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227
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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228
proficiency
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| n.精通，熟练，精练 | |
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229
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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230
pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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231
affluence
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| n.充裕，富足 | |
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232
promptly
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| adv.及时地，敏捷地 | |
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233
expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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234
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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235
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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236
evaded
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| 逃避( evade的过去式和过去分词 )； 避开； 回避； 想不出 | |
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237
dreading
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| v.害怕，恐惧，担心( dread的现在分词 ) | |
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238
parched
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| adj.焦干的；极渴的；v.（使）焦干 | |
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239
aisles
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| n. (席位间的)通道, 侧廊 | |
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240
barge
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| n.平底载货船，驳船 | |
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241
extol
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| v.赞美，颂扬 | |
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242
abide
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| vi.遵守；坚持；vt.忍受 | |
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243
bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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244
sleepless
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|
| adj.不睡眠的，睡不著的，不休息的 | |
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245
pallid
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| adj.苍白的，呆板的 | |
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246
manly
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| adj.有男子气概的；adv.男子般地，果断地 | |
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247
behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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248
wondrous
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| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
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249
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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250
miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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251
conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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252
fatuity
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| n.愚蠢，愚昧 | |
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253
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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254
dissent
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| n./v.不同意，持异议 | |
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255
devour
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| v.吞没；贪婪地注视或谛听，贪读；使着迷 | |
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256
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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257
wreck
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| n.失事，遇难；沉船；vt.(船等)失事，遇难 | |
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258
exulting
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| vi. 欢欣鼓舞，狂喜 | |
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259
eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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260
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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261
depositions
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|
| 沉积（物）( deposition的名词复数 )； （在法庭上的）宣誓作证； 处置； 罢免 | |
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262
accusation
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| n.控告，指责，谴责 | |
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263
horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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264
aggravation
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| n.烦恼，恼火 | |
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265
transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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266
onus
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| n.负担；责任 | |
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267
innate
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| adj.天生的，固有的，天赋的 | |
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268
conjecture
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| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
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269
inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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270
conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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271
eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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272
dubious
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| adj.怀疑的，无把握的；有问题的，靠不住的 | |
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273
pivot
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| v.在枢轴上转动；装枢轴，枢轴；adj.枢轴的 | |
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274
mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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275
makers
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| n.制造者，制造商（maker的复数形式） | |
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276
conclusively
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| adv.令人信服地，确凿地 | |
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277
rotunda
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| n.圆形建筑物；圆厅 | |
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278
disastrously
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| ad.灾难性地 | |
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279
blotted
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| 涂污( blot的过去式和过去分词 )； （用吸墨纸）吸干 | |
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280
inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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281
induction
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| n.感应，感应现象 | |
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282
impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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283
premises
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| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
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284
expatiate
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| v.细说，详述 | |
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285
blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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286
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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287
enjoyments
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| 愉快( enjoyment的名词复数 )； 令人愉快的事物； 享有； 享受 | |
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288
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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289
contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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290
besetting
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| adj.不断攻击的v.困扰( beset的现在分词 )；不断围攻；镶；嵌 | |
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291
incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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292
conundrum
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| n.谜语；难题 | |
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293
frivolity
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| n.轻松的乐事，兴高采烈；轻浮的举止 | |
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294
riddles
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| n.谜（语）( riddle的名词复数 )；猜不透的难题，难解之谜 | |
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295
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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296
relinquish
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| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
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297
industrious
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| adj.勤劳的，刻苦的，奋发的 | |
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298
dispensed
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| v.分配( dispense的过去式和过去分词 )；施与；配（药） | |
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299
refreshment
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| n.恢复，精神爽快，提神之事物；（复数）refreshments:点心，茶点 | |
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300
Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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301
salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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302
expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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303
maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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304
maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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305
perfectly
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|
| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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306
hatred
|
|
| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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307
antiquated
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|
| adj.陈旧的，过时的 | |
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308
turmoil
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|
| n.骚乱，混乱，动乱 | |
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309
registration
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|
| n.登记，注册，挂号 | |
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310
judgments
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|
| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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311
wholesale
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|
| n.批发；adv.以批发方式；vt.批发，成批出售 | |
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312
gravy
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| n.肉汁；轻易得来的钱，外快 | |
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313
fathomless
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|
| a.深不可测的 | |
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314
professes
|
|
| 声称( profess的第三人称单数 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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315
prohibition
|
|
| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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316
sergeant
|
|
| n.警官，中士 | |
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317
judicial
|
|
| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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318
antiquity
|
|
| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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319
fixed
|
|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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320
suffrage
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|
| n.投票，选举权，参政权 | |
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321
inscribed
|
|
| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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322
diffused
|
|
| 散布的，普及的，扩散的 | |
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323
quotations
|
|
| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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324
quotation
|
|
| n.引文，引语，语录；报价，牌价，行情 | |
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325
virtuous
|
|
| adj.有品德的，善良的，贞洁的，有效力的 | |
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326
inflicting
|
|
| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的现在分词 ) | |
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327
persecution
|
|
| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
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328
sublimity
|
|
| 崇高，庄严，气质高尚 | |
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329
awe
|
|
| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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330
chapels
|
|
| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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331
imposing
|
|
| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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332
recollecting
|
|
| v.记起，想起( recollect的现在分词 ) | |
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333
sufficiently
|
|
| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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334
followers
|
|
| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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335
creeds
|
|
| （尤指宗教）信条，教条( creed的名词复数 ) | |
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336
opposition
|
|
| n.反对，敌对 | |
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337
promulgated
|
|
| v.宣扬（某事物）( promulgate的过去式和过去分词 )；传播；公布；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
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338
wrath
|
|
| n.愤怒，愤慨，暴怒 | |
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339
bowels
|
|
| n.肠，内脏，内部；肠( bowel的名词复数 )；内部，最深处 | |
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340
meekness
|
|
| n.温顺，柔和 | |
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341
submission
|
|
| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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342
condemnatory
|
|
| adj. 非难的，处罚的 | |
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343
prudent
|
|
| adj.谨慎的，有远见的，精打细算的 | |
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344
celebrated
|
|
| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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345
peruse
|
|
| v.细读，精读 | |
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346
demolition
|
|
| n.破坏,毁坏,毁坏之遗迹 | |
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347
adversary
|
|
| adj.敌手，对手 | |
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348
prosecute
|
|
| vt.告发；进行；vi.告发，起诉，作检察官 | |
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349
prosecuted
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|
| a.被起诉的 | |
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350
temperate
|
|
| adj.温和的，温带的，自我克制的，不过分的 | |
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351
temperately
|
|
| adv.节制地，适度地 | |
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352
manliness
|
|
| 刚毅 | |
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353
amenable
|
|
| adj.经得起检验的；顺从的；对负有义务的 | |
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354
pertinacity
|
|
| n.执拗，顽固 | |
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355
procure
|
|
| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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356
inflexible
|
|
| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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357
truthfulness
|
|
| n. 符合实际 | |
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358
ridicule
|
|
| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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359
renounced
|
|
| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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360
repealed
|
|
| 撤销，废除( repeal的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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361
witchcraft
|
|
| n.魔法，巫术 | |
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362
statutes
|
|
| 成文法( statute的名词复数 )； 法令； 法规； 章程 | |
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363
superstition
|
|
| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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364
discretion
|
|
| n.谨慎；随意处理 | |
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365
predecessors
|
|
| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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366
treatise
|
|
| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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367
implicit
|
|
| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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368
shackled
|
|
| 给（某人）带上手铐或脚镣( shackle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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369
preposterous
|
|
| adj.荒谬的，可笑的 | |
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370
reprobate
|
|
| n.无赖汉；堕落的人 | |
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371
defiance
|
|
| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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372
jurisdiction
|
|
| n.司法权，审判权，管辖权，控制权 | |
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373
providence
|
|
| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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374
scoffing
|
|
| n. 嘲笑, 笑柄, 愚弄 v. 嘲笑, 嘲弄, 愚弄, 狼吞虎咽 | |
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375
infamous
|
|
| adj.声名狼藉的，臭名昭著的，邪恶的 | |
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376
commentator
|
|
| n.注释者，解说者；实况广播评论员 | |
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377
credence
|
|
| n.信用，祭器台，供桌，凭证 | |
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378
perversion
|
|
| n.曲解；堕落；反常 | |
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379
forgery
|
|
| n.伪造的文件等，赝品，伪造（行为） | |
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380
explicitly
|
|
| ad.明确地，显然地 | |
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381
construed
|
|
| v.解释（陈述、行为等）( construe的过去式和过去分词 )；翻译，作句法分析 | |
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382
discourses
|
|
| 论文( discourse的名词复数 )； 演说； 讲道； 话语 | |
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383
alluding
|
|
| 提及，暗指( allude的现在分词 ) | |
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384
finch
|
|
| n.雀科鸣禽(如燕雀，金丝雀等) | |
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385
erect
|
|
| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
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386
erects
|
|
| v.使直立，竖起( erect的第三人称单数 )；建立 | |
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387
affidavit
|
|
| n.宣誓书 | |
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388
inspection
|
|
| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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389
mitigated
|
|
| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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390
imprisoned
|
|
| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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391
pillory
|
|
| n.嘲弄；v.使受公众嘲笑；将…示众 | |
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392
commissioner
|
|
| n.（政府厅、局、处等部门）专员，长官，委员 | |
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393
vessel
|
|
| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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394
tracts
|
|
| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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395
apostates
|
|
| n.放弃原来信仰的人( apostate的名词复数 )；叛教者；脱党者；反叛者 | |
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396
amity
|
|
| n.友好关系 | |
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397
despoiling
|
|
| v.掠夺，抢劫( despoil的现在分词 ) | |
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398
implicates
|
|
| n.牵涉，涉及（某人）( implicate的名词复数 )；表明（或意指）…是起因 | |
参考例句： |
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399
credentials
|
|
| n.证明，资格，证明书，证件 | |
参考例句： |
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400
conscientiously
|
|
| adv.凭良心地；认真地，负责尽职地；老老实实 | |
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401
promulgates
|
|
| v.宣扬（某事物）( promulgate的第三人称单数 )；传播；公布；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
参考例句： |
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402
mischievous
|
|
| adj.调皮的，恶作剧的，有害的，伤人的 | |
参考例句： |
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403
levity
|
|
| n.轻率，轻浮，不稳定，多变 | |
参考例句： |
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404
parody
|
|
| n.打油诗文，诙谐的改编诗文，拙劣的模仿；v.拙劣模仿，作模仿诗文 | |
参考例句： |
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405
acquitted
|
|
| 宣判…无罪( acquit的过去式和过去分词 )； 使（自己）作出某种表现 | |
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406
reverently
|
|
| adv.虔诚地 | |
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407
indirectly
|
|
| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
参考例句： |
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408
assail
|
|
| v.猛烈攻击，抨击，痛斥 | |
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409
assailed
|
|
| v.攻击( assail的过去式和过去分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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410
assails
|
|
| v.攻击( assail的第三人称单数 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
参考例句： |
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411
abjure
|
|
| v.发誓放弃 | |
参考例句： |
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412
adjuring
|
|
| v.（以起誓或诅咒等形式）命令要求( adjure的现在分词 )；祈求；恳求 | |
参考例句： |
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413
alleviated
|
|
| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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414
melancholy
|
|
| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
参考例句： |
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415
obedience
|
|
| n.服从，顺从 | |
参考例句： |
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416
reprobation
|
|
| n.斥责 | |
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417
fabric
|
|
| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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418
meditating
|
|
| a.沉思的，冥想的 | |
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419
implore
|
|
| vt.乞求，恳求，哀求 | |
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420
supplication
|
|
| n.恳求，祈愿，哀求 | |
参考例句： |
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421
gaols
|
|
| 监狱，拘留所( gaol的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
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422
atheism
|
|
| n.无神论，不信神 | |
参考例句： |
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423
monstrous
|
|
| adj.巨大的；恐怖的；可耻的，丢脸的 | |
参考例句： |
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424
votaries
|
|
| n.信徒( votary的名词复数 )；追随者；（天主教）修士；修女 | |
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425
devoid
|
|
| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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426
consolation
|
|
| n.安慰，慰问 | |
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427
unreasonable
|
|
| adj.不讲道理的，不合情理的，过度的 | |
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428
disquieting
|
|
| adj.令人不安的，令人不平静的v.使不安，使忧虑，使烦恼( disquiet的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
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429
purely
|
|
| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
参考例句： |
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430
slaying
|
|
| 杀戮。 | |
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431
substantiate
|
|
| v.证实；证明...有根据 | |
参考例句： |
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432
extravagant
|
|
| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
参考例句： |
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433
perjury
|
|
| n.伪证；伪证罪 | |
参考例句： |
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434
invoked
|
|
| v.援引( invoke的过去式和过去分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
参考例句： |
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435
sophistry
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| n.诡辩 | |
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436
conjure
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| v.恳求，祈求；变魔术，变戏法 | |
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437
shackles
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| 手铐( shackle的名词复数 )； 脚镣； 束缚； 羁绊 | |
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438
precedents
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| 引用单元； 范例( precedent的名词复数 )； 先前出现的事例； 前例； 先例 | |
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439
lengthened
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| （时间或空间）延长，伸长( lengthen的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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440
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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441
allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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442
arrogate
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| v.冒称具有...权利，霸占 | |
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443
legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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444
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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445
reviling
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| v.辱骂，痛斥( revile的现在分词 ) | |
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446
consecutively
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| adv.连续地 | |
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447
interspersed
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| adj.[医]散开的；点缀的v.intersperse的过去式和过去分词 | |
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448
artifice
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| n.妙计，高明的手段；狡诈，诡计 | |
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449
alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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450
viper
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| n.毒蛇；危险的人 | |
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451
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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452
consultation
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| n.咨询；商量；商议；会议 | |
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453
consigned
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的过去式和过去分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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454
felons
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| n.重罪犯( felon的名词复数 )；瘭疽；甲沟炎；指头脓炎 | |
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455
penitentiary
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| n.感化院；监狱 | |
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456
adjourned
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| （使）休会， （使）休庭( adjourn的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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457
contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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458
shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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459
sonorous
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| adj.响亮的，回响的；adv.圆润低沉地；感人地；n.感人，堂皇 | |
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460
dedicated
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| adj.一心一意的；献身的；热诚的 | |
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461
juvenility
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| n.年轻，不成熟 | |
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462
remonstrate
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| v.抗议，规劝 | |
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463
perpetuate
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| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
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464
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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465
unravelled
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| 解开，拆散，散开( unravel的过去式和过去分词 )； 阐明； 澄清； 弄清楚 | |
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466
abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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467
attentive
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| adj.注意的，专心的；关心(别人)的，殷勤的 | |
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468
thronged
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| v.成群，挤满( throng的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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469
approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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470
momentous
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| adj.重要的，重大的 | |
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471
consonant
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| n.辅音；adj.[音]符合的 | |
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472
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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