1881.]
When I was invited to read a paper at this Conference, I thought that, as editor of the Freethinker, I ought to say something about Freethonght. And as the deliberations of this Conference are mostly on practical matters, it occurred to me that I had better select a subject of less immediate2 though not of insignificant3 interest. So I resolved to address you on Freethonght in Current Literature.
I have said that this subject, if not practical and urgent, is assuredly not unimportant. The power of literature over men's minds cannot be estimated too highly. Science is a tremendous force, but its greatest influence is exercised over the human mind when it quits the merely practical task of ministering to our material desires, and seeks to mould our moral and spiritual conceptions of our position and destiny in the universe. To do this it must address us through the medium of literature. Art also is a great force, more especially in countries which have not been subjected, like ours, to the bondage4 of Puritanism. But art has hitherto appealed to a restricted circle, although that circle is rapidly widening in our own age. The greatest, most permanent, and most universal force is literature. Raphael and Michael Angelo have not influenced the world so profoundly as Shakespeare and Dante; while so many artistic5 achievements of antiquity6 are lost or half decayed, its literary masterpieces still survive with undiminished freshness and charm; and while the most eminent7 works even of contemporary artists are seen only occasionally by a few, the most eminent writings of the world's master minds may and do become a household possession to thousands who move in the humblest spheres of life.
In these cosmopolitan8 days the Freethinker and Humanitarian9 naturally looks beyond his own country into the great world, which is at present divided by national and other barriers, but which will in time become the home of one all-embracing family. And I confess that I was strongly tempted10 to trace the workings of the spirit of Freethought as far as I could in the general literature of Europe. But I soon recognised the necessity of limiting myself to the manifestations11 of that subtle and pervasive12 spirit in the current literature of our English tongue.
When the present century commenced Europe was stirred to the utter depths by that great French Revolution which marked a new epoch13 in the world's history. The revolutionary wave surged across the western world, and passed over England as well as other countries. Some thought the huge eclipse of social order which accompanied it the herald14 of approaching night, and others thought it the dawn of a new day; but none were indifferent. There was an intense excitement of radical15 passions and desires, a quickening of all the springs of life. This produced a blossoming of our literature such as had not been witnessed since the great Elizabethan age, and then, as before, Free-thought mixed with the vital sap. Of the long array of post-revolutionary names I select three—Thomas Paine, who represented the keen and restless common-sense of Freethought; William Godwin, who represented its calmer philosophy; and Shelley, who represented its lofty hopes and soaring aspirations16. Godwin has almost faded into a name; Paine's great work is nearly done, for a deeper and more scientific scepticism has possessed17 itself of the field in which he labored18; but Shelley has a message for generations yet unborn. He emerges as the supreme19 figure destined20 to immortality22 of fame. All great and noble and beautiful qualities cohere23 in him, the "poet of poets and purest of men." And he is ours. Byron, with all his splendid energy and terrible scorn, quailed24 before the supreme problems of life; but Shelley faced them with a courage all the greater because it was unconscious, and casting aside all superstitious25 dreams and illusory hopes, yearned26 prophetically towards the Future, when freedom, truth and love shall supersede27 all other trinities, and realise here on earth that Paradise which theologians have only promised in a world to come.
A Shelley cultus has grown up during recent years, and many of our most gifted writers reverently28 bow themselves before him. I have only to mention such names as Browning, Swinburne, and Rossetti to show the intellectual rank of his worshippers. Their number increases every year, and it is touching29 to witness the avidity with which they seize on all new facts relating to him, whether the record of some episode in his life, a reported conversation, or a scrap30 of writing from his hand.
From the Shelley and Byron period to the fresh revolutionary outburst of 1848 there was a lull31 in England as well as elsewhere. Several great political reforms were achieved in the interval32. A Reform Bill was carried. Catholics and Jews were emancipated33, and freedom and cheapness of the press were won by the untameable courage of men like Carlile, Hetherington, Lovett, and Watson. But quietude reigned34 in the higher spheres of literature. The age was eminently35 respectable, and it acclaimed36 the highly respectable Wordsworth as, the prophet divinely inspired to teach men how to rest and be thankful.
But during that interval of apathy37 and respectability, Science was slowly gathering38 strength and making conquests, in preparation for the time when she might plant her feet firmly on the solid ground she had won, and challenge Theology to mortal combat. Geology and Biology, in especial, were getting themselves ready to overthrow39 the fables40 of Genesis and destroy its doctrines41 of special creation. And one is glad to admit that they have completely succeeded at last. Professor Huxley declares that he is not acquainted with any man of science or properly instructed person who believes that Adam and Eve were the first parents of mankind, or that we have all descended43 from the eight persons who superintended that wonderful floating menagerie which survived a universal deluge44 less than five thousand years ago. And all the clergy45 can say in reply is that Professor Huxley is not endowed with that theological faculty46 which enables them to perceive in the language of Scripture47 a meaning which is quite undiscernible to the eyes of common sense.
Another influence was at work during that interval. Mainly through Carlyle, the treasures of German literature were opened up to English readers. The greatest German writers, from Leasing, G?ethe, and Schiller to Fichte, Richter, and Heine, were outrageous48 Freethinkers compared with our own respectable and orthodox writers, and their influence soon made itself evident in the tolerance49 and courage with which English authors began to treat the great problems of morality and religion. German scholarship, too, slowly crept among us. Its Biblical criticism showed us the utter inadequacy50 of evidential works like Paley's, and made us see that the Christian51 Scriptures52 would have to be viewed in a very different light and studied in a very different spirit. To estimate the extent of this change, we have only to place Paley's "Evidences of Christianity" beside such a work as "Supernatural Religion." The gulf53 between these works is enormous; and it is notable that the more scientific and rigorous is the criticism of the New Testament54 books, the more heterodox are the conclusions reached. Even Scotland has been invaded by this German influence, and it now affords us the laughable spectacle of a number of grave ministers pursuing as a damnable heretic a man like Dr. Robertson Smith, whose only crime is having stated about the Bible nothing new, but what every scholar in Europe knows to be admitted and indisputable. These solemn ministers of the old creed55 are determined56 to keep the deluge of what they call "German infidelity" from flooding the valleys and mounting the hillsides of Scotland; but their heresy57-hunts are just as efficacious against what they so piously58 dread59 as Mrs. Partington's mop against the mighty60 onrush of Atlantic rollers.
With the revolutionary movement of '48 came a fresh impulse from France. The great evangel of '89 had not perished; it was only in abeyance61; and again it burst upon Europe with its words of fire. We all know how the Republic which was then established was soon suppressed in blood by the gang of adventurers presided over by Napoleon the Little. But the day of retribution came, and the empire went the way of all tyrannies. On its ruins the Republic has been established anew, and now it reckons in its service and among its champions the best intellects and the noblest characters in France; while the masses of the people, taught by the bitter lessons of adversity, are also content to enjoy the benefits of ordered liberty and peaceful progress under its benign62 sway.
Now French progress has always been a question of ideas no less than of material advantage. The great democratic leaders in France have nearly all been avowed63 Freethinkers. They have separated themselves alike from "the blood on the hands of the king and the lie at the lips of the priest," being perfectly64 assured that outward freedom in politics is in the long run impossible without inward freedom of thought. The chief statesman in France, M. Gambetta, has publicly declared himself a disciple65 of Voltaire, and neither at the marriages nor at the funerals of his friends does he ever enter the doors of a church. He stays outside and quietly allows those who desire it to go in and listen to the mumbling66 of the priest.
My purpose, however, being literary and not political, I must recur67 to my remark that a fresh impulse came to us from France after the revolution of '48. Lamartine at first exercised considerable influence here, but gradually Victor Hugo's star ascended68, and from the moment it reached the zenith until now, he has been accounted the supreme poet of France, and the greatest contemporary evangelist of the ideas of '89. He is a Freethinker as well as a Republican; and it was inevitable69 that the younger school of writers in England, who acknowledge him as a lofty master, should drink from his inexhaustible spring the living waters of Democracy and Freethought.
French influence on our very recent literature is evident in such works as Mr. John Morley's Studies on Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, and Condorcet; Mr. Christie's monumental Life of Etienne Dolet, the Freethought martyr70; and Mr. Parton's new Life of Voltaire; all of which demand and will amply requite71 our attention.
Such are the influences which have conspired72 to shape the literary activities of the generation in which we live. Now Freethought, like a subtle essence, penetrates73 everywhere. Every book betrays its presence, and even the periodical literature of our age is affected74 by it. The Archbishop of Canterbury laments76 that Christian men cannot introduce the most respectable magazines into their homes without the risk of poisoning the minds of their families with heretical ideas.
One of the signs that Freethought had begun to leaven77 the educated classes was the publication of the famous "Essays and Reviews." The heresy of that book was exceedingly small, but it roused a great storm in the religious world and led to more than one clerical prosecution78. Another sign was the publication of Colenso's learned work on the Pentateuch. This hard-working Colonial Bishop75 was denounced as a heretic by the idler home Bishops79, and Ruskin has said that they would have liked to burn Colenso alive, and make Ludgate Hill easier for the omnibuses with the cinders80 of him. An antagonist81 very different from the Bishops was Mr. Matthew Arnold, who severely82 censured83 Colenso's whole method of criticism, as a handling of religious questions in an irreligious spirit. Mr. W. R. Greg admirably defended the Bishop, and the controversy84 ended in a drawn85 battle.
But what has happened since? The same Matthew Arnold who censured Colenso has himself published two remarkable86 works on "Literature and Dogma" and "God and the Bible," written it is true on a different plan from Colenso's, but containing a hundred times more heresy than the Bishop crammed87 into all his big volumes. For Mr. Arnold deprecates the idea of a personal god, likens the Christian Trinity to three Lord Shaftesburys, and says that the Bible miracles must all be given up without reservation. All the positive religion he leaves us is the belief in "An eternal not ourselves that makes for righteousness," which is about as nebulous a creed as ever was preached. Now Mr. Arnold is not an insignificant person. He is recognised as a past-master of English letters, a ripe scholar, a fine poet, and an exquisite88 critic. When such a man carries destructive criticism to its utmost limits, we may well congratulate ourselves on a signal triumph of Freethought. And we may also find comfort in the fact that nobody thinks of flinging a stone at Mr. Arnold for his heresy. By-and-by the censors89 of religion in the press will cease to throw stones at the Freethought teachers among the masses of the people, who only put into homlier English and publish in a cheaper form the sentiments and ideas which Mr. Arnold expresses for the educated classes at a higher price and in a loftier style.
During the winter a gap was made in the front rank of English literature by the deaths of Carlyle and George Eliot. Neither of these great writers was orthodox. Carlyle was a Freethinker to the extent of discarding Christian supernaturalism. Very early in his life he told Edward Irving that he did not, nor was it likely he ever would, regard Christianity as he did. We all remember, too, his scornful references to Hebrew Old Clothes, and his fierce diatribes90 against the clergy who, he said, went about with strange gear on their heads, and underneath91 it such a theory of the universe as he, for one, was thankful to have no concern with. In the "Latter-Day Pamphlets" he likened Christianity to a great tree, sprung from the seed of Nazareth, and since fed by the opulences of fifty generations; which now is perishing at the root, and sways to and fro ever farther and farther from the perpendicular92; and which in the end must come down, and leave to those who found shelter beneath it and thought it infinite, a wholesome93 view of the upper eternal lights. And his contempt for controversial or dogmatic theology may be gauged94 by his reply to one who asked him whether he was a Pantheist. "No," said Carlyle, "never was; nor a Pot-Theist either."
George Eliot was notoriously a Freethinker. Early in her literary career she translated Strauss and Feuerback into English, and through all her novels there runs a profound Secular spirit. Among her friends she was well known to be a Positivist; and though her creed held forth95 no promise of personal life beyond the grave, she found inspiration and comfort in the thought that Humanity would advance after she was gone, that though she died the race was practically immortal21. Her mind was thoroughly96 imbued97 with the scientific spirit, and her writings give some conception of the way in which the Evolution theory affected a mind, fortified98 by culture and abundant common sense against the crudities of enthusiasm. The doctrine42 of Evolution did not fill her with despair; on the contrary, it justified99 and strengthened her ardent100 hopes for the future of mankind.
Many other novelists betray a strong spirit of Freethought.
It pervades101 all George Meredith's later writings, and is still more conspicuous102 in Mrs. Lynn Linton's "True History of Joshua Davidson" and her powerful "Under which Lord?" the hero-husband of that story being an Agnostic gentleman who founds a workmen's institute and delivers Freethought lectures in it.
Almost all the young school of poets are Freethinkers. Browning, our greatest, and Tennyson, our most popular, belong to a generation that is past. Mr. Swinburne is at the head of the new school, and he is a notorious heretic. He never sings more loftily, or with stronger passion, or with finer thought, than when he arraigns103 and denounces priestcraft and its superstitions104 before the bar of humanity and truth.
The reception of Mr. Thomsons poems and essays affords another sign of the progress of Freethought. This gentleman for many years contributed to secular journals under the initials of "B. V." He is a pronounced Atheist105, and makes no concealment106 of it in his poems. Yet, while a few critics have expressed horror at his heresy, the majority have treated it as extremely natural in an educated thoughtful man, and confined themselves to the task of estimating the genius he has put into his work.
I must now draw to a close. Freethought, I hold, is an omnipresent active force in the English literature of to-day. It appears alike in the greatest works of scholarship, in the writings of men of science, in the songs of poets, in the productions of novelists, in the most respectable magazines, and in the multitudinous daily press. It is urgent and aggressive, and tolerates no restraint. It indicates the progress we have made towards that time when the mind of man shall play freely on every subject, when no question shall be thought too sacred to be investigated, when reason shall be the sovereign arbiter107 of all disputes, when priestly authority shall have perished, when every man's thought shall decide his own belief, and his conscience determine the way in which he shall walk.
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secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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bondage
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| n.奴役，束缚 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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cosmopolitan
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| adj.世界性的，全世界的，四海为家的，全球的 | |
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humanitarian
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| n.人道主义者，博爱者，基督凡人论者 | |
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tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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manifestations
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| n.表示，显示（manifestation的复数形式） | |
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pervasive
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| adj.普遍的；遍布的，(到处)弥漫的；渗透性的 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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herald
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| vt.预示...的来临，预告，宣布，欢迎 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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labored
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| adj.吃力的，谨慎的v.努力争取(for)( labor的过去式和过去分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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cohere
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| vt.附着，连贯，一致 | |
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quailed
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| 害怕，发抖，畏缩( quail的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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yearned
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| 渴望，切盼，向往( yearn的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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supersede
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| v.替代；充任 | |
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reverently
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| adv.虔诚地 | |
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touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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scrap
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| n.碎片；废料；v.废弃，报废 | |
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lull
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| v.使安静，使入睡，缓和，哄骗；n.暂停，间歇 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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emancipated
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| adj.被解放的，不受约束的v.解放某人（尤指摆脱政治、法律或社会的束缚）( emancipate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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eminently
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| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
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acclaimed
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| adj.受人欢迎的 | |
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apathy
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| n.漠不关心，无动于衷；冷淡 | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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fables
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| n.寓言( fable的名词复数 )；神话，传说 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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deluge
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| n./vt.洪水，暴雨，使泛滥 | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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48
outrageous
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| adj.无理的，令人不能容忍的 | |
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tolerance
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| n.宽容；容忍，忍受；耐药力；公差 | |
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inadequacy
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| n.无法胜任，信心不足 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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heresy
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| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
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piously
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| adv.虔诚地 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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abeyance
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| n.搁置，缓办，中止，产权未定 | |
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benign
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| adj.善良的，慈祥的；良性的，无危险的 | |
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avowed
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| adj.公开声明的，承认的v.公开声明，承认( avow的过去式和过去分词) | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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mumbling
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| 含糊地说某事，叽咕，咕哝( mumble的现在分词 ) | |
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recur
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| vi.复发，重现，再发生 | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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martyr
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| n.烈士，殉难者；vt.杀害，折磨，牺牲 | |
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71
requite
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| v.报酬，报答 | |
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72
conspired
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| 密谋( conspire的过去式和过去分词 )； 搞阴谋； （事件等）巧合； 共同导致 | |
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73
penetrates
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| v.穿过( penetrate的第三人称单数 )；刺入；了解；渗透 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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76
laments
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| n.悲恸，哀歌，挽歌( lament的名词复数 )v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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77
leaven
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| v.使发酵；n.酵母；影响 | |
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78
prosecution
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| n.起诉，告发，检举，执行，经营 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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80
cinders
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| n.煤渣( cinder的名词复数 )；炭渣；煤渣路；煤渣跑道 | |
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81
antagonist
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| n.敌人，对抗者，对手 | |
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82
severely
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| adv.严格地；严厉地；非常恶劣地 | |
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83
censured
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| v.指责，非难，谴责( censure的过去式 ) | |
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84
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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85
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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86
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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87
crammed
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| adj.塞满的，挤满的；大口地吃；快速贪婪地吃v.把…塞满；填入；临时抱佛脚( cram的过去式) | |
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88
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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censors
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| 删剪（书籍、电影等中被认为犯忌、违反道德或政治上危险的内容）( censor的第三人称单数 ) | |
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90
diatribes
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| n.谩骂，讽刺( diatribe的名词复数 ) | |
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91
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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92
perpendicular
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| adj.垂直的，直立的；n.垂直线，垂直的位置 | |
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wholesome
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| adj.适合；卫生的；有益健康的；显示身心健康的 | |
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94
gauged
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| adj.校准的；标准的；量规的；量计的v.（用仪器）测量( gauge的过去式和过去分词 )；估计；计量；划分 | |
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95
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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97
imbued
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| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的过去式和过去分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
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98
fortified
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| adj. 加强的 | |
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99
justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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100
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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101
pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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102
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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103
arraigns
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| v.告发( arraign的第三人称单数 )；控告；传讯；指责 | |
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104
superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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105
atheist
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| n.无神论者 | |
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106
concealment
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| n.隐藏, 掩盖，隐瞒 | |
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107
arbiter
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| n.仲裁人，公断人 | |
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