This is a strong title, and it requires a justification1. We have to plead that nothing else would serve our purpose. But is our purpose a sound one? That will appear in the course of this article. Let the reader finish what we have to say before he forms a judgment2.
We purpose to criticise3 the view of Christianity recently put forth5 by the greatest writer in Russia. Count Leo Tolstoi enjoys an European fame. He is one of the classics of modern fiction. His work in imaginative literature, as well as his work in religion, said the late Matthew Arnold, is "more than sufficient to signalise him as one of the most marking, interesting, and sympathy-inspiring men of our time." Whatever such a man writes deserves the closest attention. Not, indeed, that this needs to be bespoken6 for him. He has the qualities that compel it. There is the stamp of power on all his productions. We pause at them involuntarily, as we turn to look at a physical king of men who passes us in the street.
For some years Count Tolstoi discontinued his work as a novelist. His mind became occupied with social and religious problems. He ceased to be a man of the world and became a Christian4; and his being a most sincere nature, endowed with a certain large simplicity7 which is characteristic of the Russian mind, he did not rest in ecclesiastical Christianity. He embraced the religion of Christ, and began working it out to legitimate8 issues. To him the Sermon on the Mount is divine teaching, not in a metaphorical9 sense, but in its literal significance. Accordingly he tells the Christian world, in such volumes as My Religion and My Confession10, that it is all astray from the religion of Christ. He points to what its Savior said, takes his words in their honest meaning, and brands as un-Christian the whole framework of Christian society, with its armies, its police, its law courts, its wealth, and its institution of property. The Bishop11 of Peterborough and Count Tolstoi are at one in believing that if the Sermon on the Mount were carried out the State would go to ruin; only the Bishop of Peterborough shrinks from this, and jesuitically narrows the scope of Christ's teaching, while Count Tolstoi accepts it loyally and calls on Christians12 to square their practice with their profession.
Mirabeau said of Robespierre, "He is in earnest, he will go far." This is what we felt with respect to Count Tolstoi. Sooner or later he was certain to follow Jesus to the bitter end. After property comes the institution of marriage, upon which the teaching of Jesus may be found in the gospels. Count Tolstoi now insists on this teaching being practised. He has written a novel, The Kreutzer Sonata13, to show the evils, not only of marriage, but of all sexual relations. Since then he has written a sober article to justify14 the sentiments of the hero, or the protagonist15, of that terrible story. It is no longer possible to say that Pozdnischeff's ideas are those of a person in a drama. Count Tolstoi accepts the full responsibility of them, and presses them still further. He is now the un-blenching apostle of real Christianity—not the Christianity of the Churches, but the Christianity of Christ; and his new evangel will alarm the growing army of "advanced Christians," who are always canting, in their sentimental16 way, the very phrase which he develops in all its terrific meaning. To be a Christian, he tells them, is to crucify the body, to kill the animal passions, to live the pure life of the spirit, and, in short, to practise every austerity of asceticism17.
Tolstoi did not jump to this conclusion. Writing on his novels, Mr. W. E. Henley called him "the great optimist18." The Kreutzer Sonata is the work of a profound pessimist19. Concluding What To Do, Tolstoi wrote a noble passage on the sacredness of motherhood. Now all that is changed. Motherhood must go too. It will take time, for the old Adam is strong in us. But go it must, and when we have all brought our bodies under, no more children will be born. The race will expire, having perfected its imitation of Christ, and the animals that remain will hold the world in undisputed possession; unless, indeed, they catch the contagion20, and wind up the whole terrestrial business.
Before we treat Tolstoi's evangel in detail we must remark that he does not explain the "primeval command" of Jehovah to Adam and Eve—"Be ye fruitful and multiply and replenish21 the earth." This is very inconsistent with the gospel of absolute chastity. Jehovah says, "Get as many children as you can." Christ says, "Get none at all." If it was the same God who gave both orders he changed his mind completely, and having changed it once he may change it again. In that case the Koran will succeed the New Testament22, and the Imitation of Christ give place to the Arabian Nights.
Revenons a nos moutons. The Kreutzer Sonata is a terrible story, but like all novels with a purpose, it is inartistic. Othello kills Desdemona without moralising on the sinfulness of marriage, and Pozdnischeff stabs his wife from sheer jealousy23. All the preaching is by the way. It might be cut out without affecting the work, and that is its condemnation24. When the preacher steps forward the artist retires. And as we are dealing25 with Tolstoi the preacher we shall go straight to his article in the Universal Review.
Tolstoi admits that what he now teaches is incompatible26 with what he taught before. When writing the Kreutzer Sonata, he says: "I had not the faintest presentiment27 that the train of thought I had started would lead me whither it did. I was terrified by my own conclusion, and was at first disposed to reject it; but it was impossible not to hearken to the voice of my reason and my conscience." This is the language of earnest sincerity28.
The conclusion is this—"Even to contract marriage is, from a Christian point of view, not a progress but a fall. Love and all the states that accompany and follow it, however we may try in prose and verse to prove the contrary, never do and never can facilitate the attainment29 of an aim worthy30 of men, but always make it more difficult."
This is sufficiently31 dogmatic. Chapman thought otherwise.
Without love
All beauties bred in women are in vain,
For love informs them as the sun doth colors:
And as the sun, reflecting his warm beams
So love, fair shining in the inward man,
Brings forth in him the honorable fruits
Thus the great Elizabethan. Now for the laureate of the Victorian age.
For indeed I knew Of no more subtle master under heaven
Not only to keep down the base in man,
And courtliness, and the desire of fame,
And love of truth, and all that makes a man.
Chapman's strain is higher than Tennyson's, but they harmonise. Tolstoi's is a harsher note. He vilifies40 the flesh to exalt41 the spirit, as though the two never mingled42. He would abolish the springs of life to purify its stream! He bids us see in our passions "foes43 to be conquered rather than friends to be encouraged." Why not try to establish a just harmony between them? Is there no medium? Must the passions be kings or slaves, in prison or on the throne? "It is thought an injury to reason," wrote Diderot, "to say a word in favor of her rivals; yet it is only the passions, and strong passions, that can lift the soul to great things; without them there is nothing sublime44, whether in conduct or in productions—art becomes childish and virtue trivial."
But let us hear Tolstoi simply as a follower45 of Christ. We cannot do better than reproduce some of his sentences in extenso.
"Christ not only never instituted marriage, but, if we search for formal precept46 on the subject, we find that he rather disapproved47 it than otherwise. ('And every one that hath forsaken48 houses, or brethren, or sisters, or father, or mother, or wife, or children, or lands for my name's sake, shall receive an hundredfold, and shall inherit everlasting49 life.' Matthew xix. 29, Mark z. 29, 30, Luke xviii. 29,30). He only impressed upon married and unmarried alike the necessity of striving after perfection, which includes chastity in marriage and out of it."
"There is not and cannot be such an institution as Christian marriage.... This is what was always taught and believed by true Christians of the first and following centuries.... In the eyes of a Christian, sexual relations in marriage not only do not constitute a lawful50, right, and happy state, as our society and our churches maintain, but, on the contrary, are always a fall, a weakness, a sin."
"Such a thing as Christian marriage never was and never could be. Christ did not marry, nor did he establish marriage; neither did his disciples51 marry."
"A Christian, I say, cannot view sexual intercourse52 otherwise than as a deviation53 from the doctrine54 of Christ—as a sin. This is clearly laid down in Matt. v. 28, and the ceremony called Christian marriage does not alter its character one jot55. A Christian will never, therefore, desire marriage, but will always avoid it."
"In the Gospel it is laid down so clearly as to make it impossible to explain it away, that he who is already married when he discovers and accepts the truth, must abide56 with her with whom he has been living, i.e., must not change his wife, and must live more chastely57 than before (Matt. v. 32, xix. 8-12), that he who is single should remain unmarried and continue to live chastely (Matt. xix. 10, 12), and that both the one and the other, in their yearning58 and striving after perfect chastity, are guilty of sin if they look on a woman as an object of pleasure (Matt. v. 28, 29)."
Pozdnischeff, at the close of the Kreutzer Sonata, clinches59 all this by saying—"People should understand the true significance of the words of St. Matthew as to looking upon a woman with the eye of desire; for the words apply to woman in her sisterly character—not only to another man's wife, but also, and above all, to one's own."
If this view of marriage prevailed, and perfect chastity obtained, the human race would come to an end. Tolstoi says he cannot help that. Carnal love perpetuates60 the race, and spiritual love will extinguish it. But what if it does? It is a familiar religious dogma that the world will have an end, and science tells us that the sun is losing its heat, the result of which must in time be the extinction61 of the human race.
The great Russian does not shrink from the logic62 of Christ's teaching. He follows Christ as St Paul did; as St. Peter did, who forsook63 his wife; as the Fathers did in crying up virginity and running down marriage; as the monks64 and nuns65 did who severed66 themselves from the world and the flesh, though they often fell into the hands of the Devil. Still there is another step for Count Tolstoi to take. He has not pressed one important saying of Christ, and it is this—
"For there are some eunuchs, which were born so from their mother's womb: and there are some eunuchs, which were made eunuchs of men: and there be eunuchs, which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it" (Matt. xix. 12).
The great Origen followed this advice and emasculated himself. Nor was he alone in the practice. All the disciples of his contemporary, Valens of Barathis, made themselves eunuchs. Mantegazza considers them the spiritual fathers of the Skopskis, a Russian sect67 dating from the eleventh century. They have been persecuted68, but they number nearly six thousand, and regard themselves as the real Christians, the only true followers69 of Christ. They castrate themselves, and sometimes amputate the genitals entirely70; the women even mutilate their breasts as a mark of their sex.
Will Count Tolstoi take the final step? It seems logically necessary even without the text on eunuchs, for the only certain way to avoid sexual intercourse is to make it impossible. In any case we are very much obliged to him for holding up the real Christianity, as far as he sees it, to the purblind71 and hypocritical mob of professed72 Christians. It will fortify73 Freethinkers in their scepticism, and warn the healthy manhood and womanhood of Europe against this oriental asceticism which pretends to be a divine message to the robust74 Occident75. When Tolstoi goes the one step farther, and embraces the teaching of Jesus in its entirety, he will be the most powerful enemy of Christianity in the world. By demonstrating it to be a religion for eunuchs he will array against it the deepest instincts of mankind.
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1
justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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criticise
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| v.批评，评论；非难 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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bespoken
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| v.预定( bespeak的过去分词 )；订（货）；证明；预先请求 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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8
legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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metaphorical
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| a.隐喻的，比喻的 | |
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confession
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| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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sonata
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| n.奏鸣曲 | |
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justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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protagonist
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| n.(思想观念的)倡导者；主角，主人公 | |
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sentimental
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| adj.多愁善感的，感伤的 | |
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17
asceticism
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| n.禁欲主义 | |
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optimist
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| n.乐观的人，乐观主义者 | |
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19
pessimist
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| n.悲观者；悲观主义者；厌世 | |
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20
contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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21
replenish
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| vt.补充；(把…)装满；(再)填满 | |
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testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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23
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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24
condemnation
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| n.谴责; 定罪 | |
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25
dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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26
incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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27
presentiment
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| n.预感，预觉 | |
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28
sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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29
attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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30
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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31
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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32
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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33
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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34
begets
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| v.为…之生父( beget的第三人称单数 )；产生，引起 | |
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35
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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36
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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37
discourse
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| n.论文，演说；谈话；话语；vi.讲述，著述 | |
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38
maiden
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| n.少女，处女；adj.未婚的，纯洁的，无经验的 | |
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39
amiable
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| adj.和蔼可亲的，友善的，亲切的 | |
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40
vilifies
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| n.中伤，诽谤( vilify的名词复数 )v.中伤，诽谤( vilify的第三人称单数 ) | |
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41
exalt
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| v.赞扬，歌颂，晋升，提升 | |
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42
mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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43
foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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44
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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45
follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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46
precept
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| n.戒律；格言 | |
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47
disapproved
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| v.不赞成( disapprove的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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48
Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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49
everlasting
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| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
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50
lawful
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| adj.法律许可的，守法的，合法的 | |
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51
disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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52
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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53
deviation
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| n.背离，偏离；偏差，偏向；离题 | |
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54
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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55
jot
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| n.少量；vi.草草记下；vt.匆匆写下 | |
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56
abide
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| vi.遵守；坚持；vt.忍受 | |
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57
chastely
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| adv.贞洁地，清高地，纯正地 | |
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58
yearning
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| a.渴望的；向往的；怀念的 | |
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59
clinches
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| n.（尤指两人）互相紧紧抱[扭]住( clinch的名词复数 )；解决（争端、交易），达成（协议）v.（尤指两人）互相紧紧抱[扭]住( clinch的第三人称单数 )；解决（争端、交易），达成（协议） | |
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60
perpetuates
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| n.使永存，使人记住不忘( perpetuate的名词复数 )；使永久化，使持久化，使持续 | |
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61
extinction
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| n.熄灭，消亡，消灭，灭绝，绝种 | |
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62
logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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63
forsook
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| forsake的过去式 | |
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64
monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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65
nuns
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| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
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66
severed
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| v.切断，断绝( sever的过去式和过去分词 )；断，裂 | |
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67
sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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68
persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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69
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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70
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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71
purblind
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| adj.半盲的；愚笨的 | |
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72
professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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73
fortify
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| v.强化防御，为…设防；加强，强化 | |
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74
robust
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| adj.强壮的，强健的，粗野的，需要体力的，浓的 | |
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occident
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| n.西方；欧美 | |
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