When we speak of the great influence possessed3 by the religious order of Buddhist4 monks6, we do not intend to speak of political influence. It does not appear that in Burmah they have ever aimed at any share in the management or direction of the affairs of the country. Since the accession of the house of Alomphra to the throne, that is to say, during a period of above a hundred years, the history of Burmah has been tolerably well known. We do not recollect7 having ever met with one instance when the Phongyies, as a body, have interfered9 in the affairs of the State. They also seem to remain indifferent to family or domestic affairs. The regulations they are subjected to, and the object which they have in view in entering the religious profession, debar them from concerning themselves in affairs that are foreign to their sacred calling. But in a religious point of view alone, their influence is a mighty11 one. Upon that very order hinges the whole fabric12 of Buddhism13. From it, as from a source, flows the life that maintains and invigorates religious belief in the masses that profess10 that creed14. We may view the members of the order as religious, and as instructors16 of the people at large, and principally of youth. In that double capacity they exercise a great control and retain a strong hold over the mind of the people.
There is in man a natural disposition17 and inclination18 to admire individuals who, actuated by religious feelings, are induced to leave the world and separate from society in order to devote themselves more freely to the practice of religious duties. The more society is corrupted19, the more its members value those persons who have the moral courage to[304] estrange20 themselves from the centre of vice21, that they may preserve themselves from contamination. In fact, religious are esteemed22 in proportion to the extent of the contempt they have for this world. The Phongyies occupy precisely23 this position in the eyes of their co-religionists. Their order stands in bold relief over the society they belong to. Their dress, their mode of life, their voluntary denial of all gratification of sensual appetites, centre upon them the admiring eyes of all. They are looked upon as the imitators and followers24 of Buddha26; they hold ostensibly before ordinary believers the pattern of that perfection they have been taught so fondly to revere27. The Phongyies are as living mementoes, reminding the people of all that is most sacred and perfect in practical religion. No one will deny that the view of a body of religious existing in a community, keeping an intercourse28 with its members, must ever have a powerful tendency to foster religious feelings in the mind of a half-civilised people as the Burmese are. It is in this manner that the Phongyies command the respect and veneration of the people, and exercise a considerable amount of religious influence over the masses.
But in the capacity of instructors of the people, the members of the order act as yet more directly and actively29 upon the people. In Burmah there are no schools but those kept by the religious. The monasteries30 are as so many little seminaries where male children receive elementary instruction. The knowledge that is imparted to them by their masters is not secular31, but purely32 religious. It is a point upon which the undivided attention of a keen observer must be centred in order to understand the full meaning of the following remarks. We do not mean to say that the instructor15 has always present to his mind, as a professor, the direct teaching of religious tenets; but the fact is that no information is conveyed to the pupils except that which comes from religious books. No other books are ever used in schools.
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As soon as boys are able to read, religious books are put into their hands. During all the time they remain at school they go over books that have a direct reference to religion. Without even being aware of it, they imbibe33 religious notions, and become acquainted with some parts of the religious creed, particularly with what relates to Gaudama’s preceding and last existence. When they grow up to manhood, if they happen to read, they have, as a general practice, no other books but such as have a reference to religion. When people assemble together, either in the dzeats on the occasion of festival days, or at home on other public occasions, particularly in the days following the death of some relatives, one or several elders read some passage of their scriptures34, and thereby35 supply topics for conversation of a religious turn. This state of things originates almost entirely36 in the early education received in the monasteries at the hands of their masters, the Phongyies. It powerfully contributes to popularise and foster religious notions, whilst it indirectly38 heightens and brightens in the eyes of the people the position of the religious.
Moreover, the early intercourse between the youth and their masters tends to bring into closer contact and union both the religious and the laity. It draws nearer the ties that bind39 together these two fractions of the Buddhist society. The relation thus established between the teachers and the taught is further strengthened by the fact that the greatest number of the male portion of the community become affiliated40, during a longer or shorter period, to the society, and subjected to its rules and regulations; they are cast in the mould of religious, and retain during the remainder of their life some of the features that have been at an early period stamped on their young minds. Their memory remains41 loaded with all that they learned by heart during the days they spent in the monasteries as students or members of the society.
Though the Phongyies or Talapoins are not remarkable[306] for their zeal42 in delivering instructions or sermons to the people, they discharge occasionally that duty on the eve of and during festival days, and on all occasions when considerable offerings are brought to them in their monasteries. Sometimes, too, they are requested to go to certain places prepared for that purpose, to deliver instructions and receive offerings tendered to them by some pious43 laymen44. The preaching never consists in expounding45 the text of the religious books, and developing certain points of the law; it is a mere46 rehearsal47 and repetition of the precepts48 of the law or of regular formulas in praise of Gaudama, and an enumeration49 of the merits to be gained by those who bestow50 alms on them. These and similar circumstances much contribute to keep up the position of the religious, and aid them in retaining a powerful religious hold over their respective communities. We repeat it as our deliberate opinion, that upon the religious association under consideration principally rests, as on a strong basis, the great fabric of Buddhism. Were such an institution to give way and crumble51 to the dust, the vital energies of that false creed would soon be weakened and completely paralysed. Buddhism would yield before the first attack that would be skilfully52 and vigorously directed against it.
In Burmah the Phongyies are highly respected by every member of the community. When they appear in public, walking in the streets, they are the objects of the greatest attention. The people withdraw before them to leave a free passage. Women are seen squatting53 on both sides of the way, through respect for the venerated54 personages. When visited in their dwellings55, even by persons of the highest rank, the etiquette56 is that every visitor should prostrate57 himself three times before the head of the monastery58, uttering the following formula:—“To the end of obtaining the remission of all the faults I have committed through my senses, my speech, and my heart, I make a first, second, and third prostration59 in honour of the three precious things—Phra, his law, and the assembly[307] of the perfect. Meanwhile, I earnestly wish to be preserved from the three calamities60, the four states of punishment, and the five enemies.” To which the recluse61 answers:—“For his merit and reward, may he who makes such prostrations be freed from the four states of punishment, the three calamities, the five sorts of enemies, and from all evil whatsoever62. May he obtain the object of all his wishes, walk steadily63 in the path of perfection, enjoy the advantages resulting therefrom, and finally obtain the state of Neibban.” On the visitor withdrawing from his presence, the three prostrations must be repeated; he then stands up, falls back to a distance of ten feet, as it would be highly unbecoming to turn the back suddenly on the holy man, wheels round on the right, and goes out. This usage is doubtless very ancient, and is at the same time looked upon as a very important one. In the Life of Gaudama we have seen it mentioned on all occasions when visitors went to pay their respects to him. Princes and nobles observed the ceremony with the utmost punctuality.
The best proof of the high veneration the people entertain for the Talapoins is the truly surprising liberality with which they gladly minister to all their wants. They impose upon themselves great sacrifices, incur64 enormous expenses, place themselves joyfully65 in narrow circumstances, that they might have the means to build monasteries with the best and most substantial materials, and adorn66 them with all the luxury the country can afford.[61][308] Gold is often profusely67 used for gilding68 the posts, ceiling, and other parts of the interior, as well as several trunks or chests for storing up manuscripts. Two or three roofs superposed upon each other (a privilege exclusively reserved to royal palaces, pagodas71, and kiaongs) indicate to the stranger that the building is a monastery. The recluse’s house is well supplied with the various articles of furniture becoming the pious inmates72. The individual who builds at his own expense such a house, assumes the much-envied title of Kiaong-taga, or supporter of a monastery. This title is for ever coupled with his name: it is used as a mark of respect by all persons conversing73 with him, and it appears in all papers or documents which he may have to sign. The best, finest, and most substantial articles, if allowed by the regulations as fit for the use of the Talapoins, are generously and abundantly afforded by benevolent74 persons. When the king is religiously inclined, the best and most costly75 presents he receives are deposited in the monasteries, to adorn the place or hall where the principal idol76 is.
Government does not interfere8 or give any assistance in building pagodas or kiaongs; nor does it provide for the support of the pious Rahans; but the liberality of the people amply suffices for all contingencies77 of the kind. When a man has made some profit by trading, or any other[309] way, he will almost infallibly bestow the best portion of his lucre78 in building a kiaong, or feeding the inmates of a religious house for a few months, or in giving general alms to all the recluses79 of the town. Such liberality, which is by no means uncommon80, has its root, we believe, in a strong religious sentiment, and also in the insecurity—nay81, the danger—of holding property to a large amount.
When a Talapoin is addressed by a layman82, the latter assumes the title of disciple83; and the former calls him simply Taga, or supporter. The attitude of the layman in the presence of the Phongyie is indicative of the veneration he entertains towards his person. He squats84 down, and he never addresses the yellow-dressed individual without joining his hands in token of respect, and raising them up with a little motion indicative of intended prostration. As there is in Burmah a court language, so there is a language, or rather a certain number of expressions, reserved to designate things used by Talapoins, as well as most of the actions they perform in common with other men, such as eating, walking, sleeping, shaving, &c. The very turn of the commonest sentence is indicative of respect when speaking to a Rahan. He is called Phra, the most honourable85 term the language can afford. His person is sacred, and no one would dare to offer him the least insult or violence. The influence of the Talapoin upon the people is considerable, in proportion to the great respect borne to his sacred character. So extraordinary has it been on certain occasions, that Phongyies have been seen rescuing forcibly from the hands of the police culprits on their way to the place of execution. No resistance, then, could be made by the policemen without exposing themselves to the danger of committing a sacrilege, by lifting their hands against them when such an occurrence takes place. The liberated86 wretches87 are then forthwith led to the next monastery. Their heads having been shaved, they are attired88 in the yellow garb89, and their persons become at once sacred and inviolable.
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The veneration paid to Talapoins during their lifetime accompanies them after their death. Their state is considered as one of peculiar90 sanctity. It is supposed that their very bodies too partake of the holiness inherent in their sacred profession. Hence their mortal remains are honoured to an extent scarcely to be imagined. As soon as a distinguished91 member of the brotherhood92 has given up the ghost, his body is opened, the viscera extracted and buried in some decent place without any particular ceremony, and the corpse93 embalmed94 in a very simple manner by putting ashes, bran, and other desiccative substances into the abdominal95 cavity. It is then swathed with bands of linen96, wrapped round it many times, and a thick coat of varnish97 laid upon the whole. On this fresh varnish gold leaves are sometimes placed, so that the whole body is gilded98 over from head to feet. When the people are poor and cannot afford to buy gold for the above purpose, a piece of yellow cloth is considered as the most suitable substitute. The body, thus attired, is laid in a very massive coffin99, made, not with planks100, but of a single piece of timber hollowed in the middle for receiving the earthly frame of the deceased. A splendid cenotaph, raised in the centre of a large building erected101 for the purpose, is prepared to support a large chest wherein the coffin is deposited. The chest is often gilt102 inside and out, and decorated with flowers made of different polished substances of various colours. Pictures, such as native artists contrive103 to make, are disposed round the cenotaph. They represent ordinarily religious subjects. In this stately situation the body remains exposed for several days, nay several months, until preparations are completed for the grand day of the obsequies. During that period festivals are often celebrated104 about it, bands of music play, and people resort in crowds to the spot for the purpose of making offerings to defray the expense to be incurred105 for the funeral ceremony. When the appointed day for burning the corpse at last arrives, the whole population of[311] the town will be seen flocking in their finest dresses to witness the display of fireworks which takes place on the occasion of burning the corpse. A funeral pile of a square form is erected on the most elevated spot. Its height is about fifteen feet, and it ends with a small room made for receiving the coffin. The corpse having been hoisted106 up and laid in the place destined107 for its reception, fire is set to the pile in a rather uncommon way. An immense rocket, placed at a distance of about forty yards, is directed towards the pile by means of a fixed108 rope guiding it thereto. Sometimes the rocket is placed on a huge cart, and pushed in the direction of the pile. In its erratic109 and uncertain course it happens occasionally that it deviates110 from its course, and plunges111 into the ranks of the crowd, wounding and killing112 those it meets. As soon as it comes in contact with the pile, the latter immediately takes fire by means of combustibles heaped for that purpose, and the whole is soon consumed. The few remaining pieces of bones are religiously collected, and buried in the vicinity of some pagoda70. Here ends the profound veneration, amounting almost to worship, which Buddhists113 pay to their recluses during their life and after their demise114.
Two chief motives116 induce the sectaries of Buddha to be so liberal towards the Talapoins, and to pay them so high a respect; viz., the great merits and abundant rewards they expect to derive117 from the plentiful118 alms they bestow upon them, and the profound admiration119 they entertain for their sacred character, austere120 manners, and purely religious mode of life. The first motive115 originates from interested views; the second has its root in that regard men naturally have for persons who distinguish themselves from others by a more absolute self-denial, a greater restraint and control of their passions, a renouncement121 of permitted pleasures and sensual gratifications from religious motives. According to the fundamental dogma of Buddhism, any offering made to, or indeed any action done for the benefit of, a fellow-man is deserving of reward[312] during future existences, such as digging a well, building a resting-place, a bridge, &c.; but far more abundant are the merits resulting from presenting a Talapoin with one or several articles necessary to his daily use, as they increase proportionately to the dignity of the person to whom the things are offered. We may judge from the following instance of the plentiful harvest of merits which a supporter of Phongyies is promised to reap hereafter: He who shall make an offering of a mendicant’s pot or Thabeit shall receive as his reward cups and other utensils122 set with jewels; he shall be exempted123 from misfortunes and calamities, disquietude and trouble; he shall get without labour all that is necessary for his food, dress, and lodging124; pleasure and happiness shall be his lot; his soul shall be in a state of steadiness and tranquillity125, and his passion for the sex shall be considerably126 weakened. The offering of other objects secures to the donor127 wealth, dignity, high rank, pleasure, and an admittance into the fortunate countries or seats of the Nats, where all the things are to be met with and enjoyed that are calculated to confer on man the greatest sum of happiness. The people believe unhesitatingly all that is said to them in this respect, and they gladly strip themselves of many valuable things in order to obtain and enjoy, during coming existences, the riches and pleasures promised to them by their Rahans. The insecurity of property under tyrannical rulers may operate to a certain extent in determining people to part with their riches, and consecrate128 them to religious purposes, rather than see themselves violently deprived of them by the odious129 rapacity130 of the vile69 instruments of the avarice131, tyranny, and cruelty of their heartless princes and governors.
It can scarcely be a matter of wonder that Buddhists so much honour and respect a Talapoin, when we consider that, in their opinion, he is a true follower25 of Buddha, who strives to imitate his great prototype in the practice of the highest virtues132, particularly in his incomparable mortification[313] and self-denial, that he might secure the ascendancy134 of the spiritual principle over the material one, weaken passions which are the real causes of the disorder135 that reigns136 in our soul, and finally disengage her from their baneful137 influences, and from that of matter in general. He is exceedingly reserved and abstemious138 regarding food, the use of creatures, and the enjoyment139 of pleasures, in order to secure to reason the noblest faculty140 of an intelligent being, a perfect control over the senses. He is indeed in the right way leading to Neibban, the summit of perfection. In the opinion of a Buddhist, nobody can be compared to a true and fervent141 Rahan in sterling142 worth and merit. His moral dignity and elevation143 cast into the shade the dazzling splendour that surrounds loyalty144. He is a pious recluse, a holy personage, a true member of the holy Thanga, and deserving, therefore, of the highest admiration and respect.
As a consequence of the profound veneration in which Talapoins are publicly held, they are exempted from contributing to public charges, tribute, corvées, and military service. It is an immense favour, particularly among the nations of Eastern Asia, where the rulers look upon their subjects as mere slaves and tools under their command for executing the absolute orders of their capricious fancy. Under the present ruler of Burmah, the fathers and mothers of Phongyies are benefited by the fact of their sons being in a monastery. They are exempted from paying taxes, and are treated with some attention by the officials who wish to ingratiate themselves in the favour of his most Buddhist majesty145. They have often the honorary affixes146 joined to their names.
In concluding this notice, we will briefly147 sketch148 the actual situation of the Talapoinic order in those parts where we have had the opportunity of observing it, and will allude149 to the causes that have operated in seducing150 it into vices151, abuses, and imperfections which are lowering[314] it greatly in the opinion of all foreigners and of a few well-informed natives.
The first and principal cause that has brought the Society into disrepute and opened the door to numberless abuses is the total absence of discernment in the selection of the individuals that seek for an admittance therein. Every applicant152 is indiscriminately received as a member of the brotherhood. No previous examination takes place for ascertaining153 the dispositions154, capacity, and science of the postulant. No inquiry155 is ever made regarding the motives that may have induced him to forsake156 the world and take so important a step. His vocation157 is exposed to no trial. He has but to present himself and he is sure to be immediately received, provided he consent to conform exteriorly159 to the usual practices of his brethren. No account is taken of his former conduct. The very fact of his applying to be admitted into the society of the perfect atones160 amply for all past irregularities. The only respectability inherent in the modern Talapoins is that derived161 from the sacred yellow dress he wears. It may aptly be said of him that he is monk5 by the fact of his wearing the canonical162 dress. The houses of the order are, in many instances, filled with worthless individuals totally unfit for the profession, who have been induced by the basest motives to enter into them, chiefly by laziness, idleness, and the hope of spending quietly their time beyond the reach of want, and without being obliged to work for their livelihood163. In confirmation164 of this, I will mention the following instance. During the second year of my stay in Burmah, I had with me, in the capacity of servant, an old stupid native. On a certain day he gravely told me that he intended to leave my service and become a Phongyie. I laughed at first at what I considered to be very presumptuous165 and impertinent language. The old man, however, kept his word. Having left my house a few days after our conversation on the subject of his new vocation, I heard no more of him till it happened a few months after that I met him in[315] a monastery, attired in the full dress of a Phongyie, and so proud of his new position that he hardly condescended166 to put himself on a footing of equality with his former master.
Ignorance prevails to an extent scarcely to be imagined among the generality of the Phongyies. I have met with a great number of laymen who were incomparably better informed, and far superior in knowledge to them. Their mind is of the narrowest compass. Though bound by their profession to study with particular care the various tenets of their creed and all that relates to Buddhism, they are sadly deficient167 in this respect. They have no ardour for study. While they read some book, they do it without attention or effort to make themselves fully37 acquainted with the contents. There is no vigour168 in their intellect, no comprehensiveness in their mind, no order or connection in their ideas. Their reading is of a desultory169 nature, and the notions stored up in their memory are at once incoherent, imperfect, and too often very limited. They possess no general or correct views of Buddhism. I never met with one who could embrace the whole system in his mind and give a tolerably accurate account of it. The only faculty that they cultivate with great care is memory. It is surprising to hear them repeating by heart the contents of a book they have studied. As the number of books is very limited in countries where the art of printing has not been introduced, the pupils of the monasteries are compelled to commit to memory the greatest portion of the books they study. He who has lived in Burmah must have often heard, to his great surprise, laymen repeating, during sometimes a whole hour, formulas in Pali, or religious stories in Burmese, which they had learned in the school, or when they had put on the monkish170 habit.
Phongyies are fond of exhibiting their knowledge of the Pali language, by repeating from memory, and without stammering171 or stumbling, long formulas and sentences; but I have convinced myself that very few among them[316] understood even imperfectly a small part of what they recited. Those who enjoy popularly a reputation for uncommon knowledge affect to speak very little, show a great reserve, despising as ignorant the person that approaches their abodes172 or holds conversation with them. But silence, which in a learned man is a sign of modesty173, is too often with them a cloak to cover their ignorance, and a cunning device for disguising pride under the garb of humility174. The latter virtue133, though much recommended in the Wini, is not a favourite one with the Talapoins. It is indeed impossible that they could ever understand or practise it, since they are unacquainted with the two great ways that lead to it, viz., a profound knowledge of God and a thorough knowledge of self. Talapoins, who are distinguished among their brethren for their great austerity of manners and more perfect observance of their regulations, are the most unpleasing beings the writer has ever met with.
They are cold, reserved, speaking with affected175 conciseness176: their language is sententious, seasoned with an uncommon dose of pretension177. Sentences falling from their lips are half finished, and involved in a mysterious obscurity, calculated to fill with awe178 and admiration their numerous hearers; a certain haughtiness179 and contempt of others always shows itself through their affected simplicity180 and humble181 deportment. Vanity and selfishness, latent in their hearts, force themselves on the attention of an acute observer. In their manners they are occasionally so affected by a ridiculous reserve that one might be tempted182 to think that their brain is not quite sound. Talapoins, in general, entertain a very high idea of their own excellence183; and the great respect paid to them by the people contributes not a little to foster it, and make them believe that nobody on earth can ever be compared to them. To such a height has their pride reached that they believe it would be derogatory to their dignity to return civility for civility, or thanks for the alms people bestow on them.
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The most striking feature in the character of the Talapoins is their incomparable idleness. We may say that, in this respect, they resemble their countrymen, who are very prone184 to that vice. Two causes of a very different nature seem, in our opinion, to act together on the people of these countries to produce such a result. The first is a physical one; the heat of the climate, coupled with a perpetual uniformity in the temperature, producing a general relaxation185 in the whole system, which is never combated or counteracted186 by an opposite action or influence. The second cause is a moral one, the tyranny of the despotic governments ruling over the populations of Eastern Asia. Property is everywhere insecure. He who is suspected of being rich is exposed to numberless vexations on the part of the vile satellites of tyranny, who soon find out some apparent pretext187 for confiscating188 a part or the whole of his property, or depriving him of life, should he dare to offer resistance. In such a state of things every one is satisfied with the things of first necessity. Want forms the strongest tie that binds189 together individuals and races, and at the same time holds out the most powerful incentive190 to exertion191. The people of these parts have but few wants, and therefore they lack inducement to labour for acquiring anything beyond what is strictly192 necessary. Emulation193, ambition, the desire of growing rich, which are the main springs that move man to exertion, disappear and leave him in an abject194 and servile indolence, which soon becomes his habitual195 state, and the grave wherein is entombed all his moral energy.
Like their countrymen, Phongyies are exposed to the influence of the above causes, but their mode of life is a third additional reason why they are more indolent than others. They have not to trouble or exert themselves for the articles required for their subsistence and maintenance; these are abundantly supplied to them by their co-religionists. They are bound, it is true, to read, study, and meditate196; but their ignorance and laziness incapacitate[318] them for such intellectual exercises. They remain during the best part of the day sitting in a cross-legged position, or reclining, or sleeping, or at least attempting to do so. They occasionally resume the vertical197 position to get rid of ennui198, one of their deadliest enemies, and by repeated stretchings of arms and legs, and successive yawnings, try to free themselves from that domestic foe199. The teaching of their scholars occupies a few of them for a short time in the morning and in the evening. They are often relieved from their mortal ennui by visitors as idle as themselves, who resort to their dwellings to kill time in their company.
To keep up respectability before the public, the Rahans assume an air of dignity and reserve. They avoid all that could lead them into dissipation. Exterior158 continence is generally observed, and though there are occasional trespasses200, it would be unfair to lay on them generally the charge of incontinence. Their life so far may be considered as exemplary. Though partly divested201 of that open-heartedness which is a peculiar characteristic of their countrymen, they are tolerably kind and affable with strangers. They, however, cannot relinquish202 in their conversation with them a certain air of superiority, inspired by the admiration of self and the high opinion they entertain of their exalted203 profession and sacred character. They are unwilling204 to see them sitting unceremoniously close to themselves; and when this cannot be avoided, they seek for an opportunity of removing to another place a little more elevated than that occupied by the visitor, as it would be highly unbecoming that laymen should ever presume to sit on a level with a recluse. Such a step would imply a sort of equality between them both, which is never to be dreamt of. Their smooth and quiet countenance205, their meek206 deportment, are, as it were, slightly fretted207 with a certain roughness and rudeness peculiar to individuals leading a retired208 life, and estranging209 themselves, to a certain extent, from the place of society.
In the foregoing pages we have endeavoured to give a[319] faithful account of the great religious order existing in countries where genuine Buddhism is the prevailing210 creed. We have been obliged, for the sake of truth, to mention many abuses that have slowly crept into it; but we never entertained the slightest intention of casting a malignant211 contempt or a sneering212 ridicule213 upon its members. Most sincerely we pity those unfortunate victims of error and superstition214 who are wasting their time and energies in the fruitless pursuit of an imaginary felicity. No language can adequately express the ardour and intensity215 of our desires, sighs, and prayers to hasten the coming of the day when the thick mist and dark cloud that encompass216 their souls shall be dissipated, and the Sun of Righteousness shall shed into them his vivifying beams. However deplorable their intellectual blindness may be, we always felt that they have a right to be fairly and impartially217 dealt with. The religious order they belong to is, after all, the greatest in its extent and diffusion218, the most extraordinary and perfect in its fabric and constituent219 parts, and the wisest in its rules and prescriptions220, that has ever existed either in ancient or modern times without the pale of Christianity.
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1
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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Buddhist
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| adj./n.佛教的，佛教徒 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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recollect
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| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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fabric
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| n.织物，织品，布；构造，结构，组织 | |
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Buddhism
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| n.佛教（教义） | |
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creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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instructor
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| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
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instructors
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| 指导者，教师( instructor的名词复数 ) | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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inclination
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| n.倾斜；点头；弯腰；斜坡；倾度；倾向；爱好 | |
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19
corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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20
estrange
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| v.使疏远，离间，使离开 | |
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21
vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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23
precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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24
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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25
follower
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| n.跟随者；随员；门徒；信徒 | |
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26
Buddha
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| n.佛；佛像；佛陀 | |
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revere
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| vt.尊崇，崇敬，敬畏 | |
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28
intercourse
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| n.性交；交流，交往，交际 | |
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29
actively
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| adv.积极地，勤奋地 | |
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30
monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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31
secular
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| n.牧师，凡人；adj.世俗的，现世的，不朽的 | |
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32
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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33
imbibe
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| v.喝，饮；吸入，吸收 | |
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34
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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35
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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36
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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37
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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38
indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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39
bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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40
affiliated
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| adj. 附属的, 有关连的 | |
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41
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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42
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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43
pious
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| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
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44
laymen
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| 门外汉，外行人( layman的名词复数 )； 普通教徒（有别于神职人员） | |
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45
expounding
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| 论述，详细讲解( expound的现在分词 ) | |
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46
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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47
rehearsal
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| n.排练，排演；练习 | |
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48
precepts
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| n.规诫，戒律，箴言( precept的名词复数 ) | |
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49
enumeration
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| n.计数，列举；细目；详表；点查 | |
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50
bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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51
crumble
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| vi.碎裂，崩溃；vt.弄碎，摧毁 | |
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52
skilfully
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| adv. (美skillfully)熟练地 | |
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53
squatting
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的现在分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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54
venerated
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| 敬重（某人或某事物），崇敬( venerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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55
dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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56
etiquette
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| n.礼仪，礼节；规矩 | |
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57
prostrate
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| v.拜倒，平卧，衰竭；adj.拜倒的，平卧的，衰竭的 | |
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58
monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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59
prostration
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| n. 平伏, 跪倒, 疲劳 | |
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60
calamities
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| n.灾祸，灾难( calamity的名词复数 )；不幸之事 | |
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61
recluse
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| n.隐居者 | |
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62
whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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63
steadily
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| adv.稳定地；不变地；持续地 | |
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64
incur
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| vt.招致，蒙受，遭遇 | |
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65
joyfully
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| adv. 喜悦地, 高兴地 | |
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66
adorn
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| vt.使美化，装饰 | |
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67
profusely
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| ad.abundantly | |
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68
gilding
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| n.贴金箔，镀金 | |
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69
vile
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| adj.卑鄙的，可耻的，邪恶的；坏透的 | |
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70
pagoda
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| n.宝塔（尤指印度和远东的多层宝塔），（印度教或佛教的）塔式庙宇 | |
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71
pagodas
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| 塔，宝塔( pagoda的名词复数 ) | |
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72
inmates
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| n.囚犯( inmate的名词复数 ) | |
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73
conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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74
benevolent
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| adj.仁慈的，乐善好施的 | |
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75
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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76
idol
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| n.偶像，红人，宠儿 | |
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77
contingencies
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| n.偶然发生的事故，意外事故( contingency的名词复数 )；以备万一 | |
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78
lucre
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| n.金钱，财富 | |
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79
recluses
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| n.隐居者，遁世者，隐士( recluse的名词复数 ) | |
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80
uncommon
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| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
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81
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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82
layman
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| n.俗人，门外汉，凡人 | |
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83
disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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84
squats
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| n.蹲坐，蹲姿( squat的名词复数 )；被擅自占用的建筑物v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的第三人称单数 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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85
honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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86
liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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87
wretches
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| n.不幸的人( wretch的名词复数 )；可怜的人；恶棍；坏蛋 | |
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88
attired
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| adj.穿着整齐的v.使穿上衣服，使穿上盛装( attire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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89
garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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90
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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91
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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92
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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93
corpse
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| n.尸体，死尸 | |
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94
embalmed
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| adj.用防腐药物保存（尸体）的v.保存（尸体）不腐( embalm的过去式和过去分词 )；使不被遗忘；使充满香气 | |
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95
abdominal
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| adj.腹（部）的，下腹的；n.腹肌 | |
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96
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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97
varnish
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| n.清漆；v.上清漆；粉饰 | |
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98
gilded
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| a.镀金的，富有的 | |
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99
coffin
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| n.棺材，灵柩 | |
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100
planks
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| （厚）木板( plank的名词复数 )； 政纲条目，政策要点 | |
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101
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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102
gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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103
contrive
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| vt.谋划，策划；设法做到；设计，想出 | |
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104
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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105
incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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106
hoisted
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| 把…吊起，升起( hoist的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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107
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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108
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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109
erratic
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| adj.古怪的，反复无常的，不稳定的 | |
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110
deviates
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| v.偏离，越轨( deviate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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111
plunges
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| n.跳进，投入vt.使投入，使插入，使陷入vi.投入，跳进，陷入v.颠簸( plunge的第三人称单数 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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112
killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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113
Buddhists
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| n.佛教徒( Buddhist的名词复数 ) | |
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114
demise
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| n.死亡；v.让渡，遗赠，转让 | |
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115
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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116
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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117
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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118
plentiful
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| adj.富裕的，丰富的 | |
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119
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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120
austere
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| adj.艰苦的；朴素的，朴实无华的；严峻的 | |
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121
renouncement
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| n.否认，拒绝 | |
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122
utensils
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| 器具，用具，器皿( utensil的名词复数 )； 器物 | |
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123
exempted
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| 使免除[豁免]( exempt的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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124
lodging
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| n.寄宿，住所；(大学生的)校外宿舍 | |
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125
tranquillity
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| n. 平静, 安静 | |
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126
considerably
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| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
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127
donor
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| n.捐献者；赠送人；(组织、器官等的)供体 | |
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128
consecrate
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| v.使圣化，奉…为神圣；尊崇；奉献 | |
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129
odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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130
rapacity
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| n.贪婪，贪心，劫掠的欲望 | |
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131
avarice
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| n.贪婪；贪心 | |
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132
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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133
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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134
ascendancy
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| n.统治权，支配力量 | |
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135
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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136
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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137
baneful
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| adj.有害的 | |
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138
abstemious
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| adj.有节制的，节俭的 | |
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139
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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140
faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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141
fervent
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| adj.热的，热烈的，热情的 | |
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142
sterling
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| adj.英币的(纯粹的，货真价实的)；n.英国货币(英镑) | |
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143
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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144
loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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145
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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146
affixes
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| v.附加( affix的第三人称单数 )；粘贴；加以；盖（印章） | |
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147
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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148
sketch
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| n.草图；梗概；素描；v.素描；概述 | |
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149
allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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150
seducing
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| 诱奸( seduce的现在分词 )； 勾引； 诱使堕落； 使入迷 | |
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151
vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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152
applicant
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| n.申请人，求职者，请求者 | |
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153
ascertaining
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的现在分词 ) | |
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154
dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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155
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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156
forsake
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| vt.遗弃，抛弃；舍弃，放弃 | |
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157
vocation
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| n.职业，行业 | |
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158
exterior
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| adj.外部的，外在的；表面的 | |
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159
exteriorly
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| adv.从外部，表面上 | |
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160
atones
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| v.补偿，赎（罪）( atone的第三人称单数 )；补偿，弥补，赎回 | |
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161
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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162
canonical
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| n.权威的；典型的 | |
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163
livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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164
confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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165
presumptuous
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| adj.胆大妄为的，放肆的，冒昧的，冒失的 | |
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166
condescended
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| 屈尊，俯就( condescend的过去式和过去分词 )； 故意表示和蔼可亲 | |
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167
deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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168
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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169
desultory
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| adj.散漫的，无方法的 | |
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170
monkish
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| adj.僧侣的，修道士的，禁欲的 | |
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171
stammering
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| v.结巴地说出( stammer的现在分词 ) | |
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172
abodes
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| 住所( abode的名词复数 )； 公寓； （在某地的）暂住； 逗留 | |
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173
modesty
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| n.谦逊，虚心，端庄，稳重，羞怯，朴素 | |
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174
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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175
affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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176
conciseness
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| n.简洁，简短 | |
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177
pretension
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| n.要求；自命，自称；自负 | |
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178
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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179
haughtiness
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| n.傲慢；傲气 | |
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180
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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181
humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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182
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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183
excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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184
prone
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| adj.(to)易于…的，很可能…的；俯卧的 | |
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185
relaxation
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| n.松弛，放松；休息；消遣；娱乐 | |
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186
counteracted
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| 对抗，抵消( counteract的过去式 ) | |
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187
pretext
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| n.借口，托词 | |
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188
confiscating
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| 没收（confiscate的现在分词形式） | |
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189
binds
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| v.约束( bind的第三人称单数 )；装订；捆绑；（用长布条）缠绕 | |
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190
incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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191
exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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192
strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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193
emulation
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| n.竞争；仿效 | |
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194
abject
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| adj.极可怜的，卑屈的 | |
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195
habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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196
meditate
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| v.想，考虑，（尤指宗教上的）沉思，冥想 | |
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197
vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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198
ennui
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| n.怠倦，无聊 | |
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199
foe
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| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
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200
trespasses
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| 罪过( trespass的名词复数 )； 非法进入 | |
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201
divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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202
relinquish
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| v.放弃，撤回，让与，放手 | |
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203
exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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204
unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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205
countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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206
meek
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| adj.温顺的，逆来顺受的 | |
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207
fretted
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| 焦躁的，附有弦马的，腐蚀的 | |
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208
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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209
estranging
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| v.使疏远（尤指家庭成员之间）( estrange的现在分词 ) | |
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210
prevailing
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| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
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211
malignant
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| adj.恶性的，致命的；恶意的，恶毒的 | |
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212
sneering
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| 嘲笑的，轻蔑的 | |
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213
ridicule
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| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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214
superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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215
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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216
encompass
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| vt.围绕，包围；包含，包括；完成 | |
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217
impartially
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| adv.公平地，无私地 | |
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218
diffusion
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| n.流布；普及；散漫 | |
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219
constituent
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| n.选民；成分，组分；adj.组成的，构成的 | |
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220
prescriptions
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| 药( prescription的名词复数 )； 处方； 开处方； 计划 | |
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