On Wednesday, 22nd June, 1633, in the forenoon, Galileo was conducted to the large hall used for melancholy4 proceedings6 of this kind, in the Dominican Convent of St. Maria sopra la Minerva, where, in the presence of his judges and a large assemblage of cardinals7 and prelates of the Holy Congregation, the following sentence was read to him:—
We, Gasparo del titolo di S. Croce in Gierusalemme Borgia;
Fra Felice Centino del titolo di S. Anastasia, detto d’Ascoli;
Guido del titolo di S. Maria del Popolo Bentivoglio;
Fra Desiderio Scaglia del titolo di S. Carlo detto di Cremona;
Fra Antonio Barberino detto di S. Onofrio;
Laudivio Zacchia del titolo di S. Pietro in Vincola detto di S. Sisto;
Berlingero del titolo di S. Agostino, Gessi;
Francesco di S. Lorenzo in Damaso Barberino, e
Martio di S. Maria Nuova Ginetti Diaconi;
by the grace of God, cardinals of the Holy Roman Church, Inquisitors General, by the Holy Apostolic see specially10 deputed, against heretical depravity throughout the whole Christian11 Republic.
[231]
Whereas you, Galileo, son of the late Vincenzo Galilei, Florentine, aged12 seventy years, were in the year 1615 denounced to this Holy Office for holding as true the false doctrine13 taught by many, that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable, and that the earth moves, and also with a diurnal14 motion; for having disciples15 to whom you taught the same doctrine; for holding correspondence with certain mathematicians17 of Germany concerning the same; for having printed certain letters, entitled “On the Solar Spots,” wherein you developed the same doctrine as true; and for replying to the objections from the Holy Scriptures19, which from time to time were urged against it, by glossing20 the said Scriptures according to your own meaning: and whereas there was thereupon produced the copy of a document in the form of a letter, purporting21 to be written by you to one formerly22 your disciple16, and in this divers23 propositions are set forth24,[394] following the hypothesis of Copernicus, which are contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture18:
This Holy Tribunal being therefore desirous of proceeding5 against the disorder25 and mischief26 thence resulting, which went on increasing to the prejudice of the Holy Faith, by command of his Holiness and of the most eminent27 Lords Cardinals of this supreme28 and universal Inquisition, the two propositions of the stability of the sun and the motion of the earth were by the theological “Qualifiers” qualified29 as follows:
The proposition that the sun is the centre of the world and does not move from its place is absurd and false philosophically30 and formally heretical, because it is expressly contrary to the Holy Scripture.
The proposition that the earth is not the centre of the world and immovable, but that it moves, and also with a diurnal motion, is equally absurd and false philosophically, and theologically considered, at least erroneous in faith.
But whereas it was desired at that time to deal leniently32 with you, it was decreed at the Holy Congregation held before his Holiness on the 25th February, 1616, that his Eminence33 the Lord Cardinal8 Bellarmine should order you to abandon altogether the said false doctrine, and, in the event of your refusal, that an injunction should be imposed upon you by the Commissary of the Holy Office, to give up the said doctrine, and not to teach it to others, nor to defend it, nor even discuss it; and failing your acquiescence34 in this injunction, that you should be imprisoned35. And in execution of this decree, on the following day, at the Palace, and in the presence of his Eminence, the said Lord Cardinal Bellarmine, after being gently admonished36 by the said Lord Cardinal, the command was intimated to you by the Father Commissary of the Holy Office for the time before a notary37 and witnesses, that you were altogether to abandon the said false opinion, and not in future to defend or teach it in any way whatsoever38, neither verbally nor in writing; and upon your promising39 to obey you were dismissed.
[232]
And in order that a doctrine so pernicious might be wholly rooted out and not insinuate40 itself further to the grave prejudice of Catholic truth, a decree was issued by the Holy Congregation of the Index, prohibiting the books which treat of this doctrine, and declaring the doctrine itself to be false and wholly contrary to sacred and divine Scripture.
And whereas a book appeared here recently, printed last year at Florence, the title of which shows that you were the author, this title being: “Dialogue of Galileo Galilei on the Two Principal Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic and the Copernican”; and whereas the Holy Congregation was afterwards informed that through the publication of the said book, the false opinion of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun was daily gaining ground; the said book was taken into careful consideration, and in it there was discovered a patent violation41 of the aforesaid injunction that had been imposed upon you, for in this book you have defended the said opinion previously42 condemned44 and to your face declared to be so, although in the said book you strive by various devices to produce the impression that you leave it undecided, and in express terms as probable: which however is a most grievous error, as an opinion can in no wise be probable which has been declared and defined to be contrary to Divine Scripture:
Therefore by our order you were cited before this Holy Office, where, being examined upon your oath, you acknowledged the book to be written and published by you. You confessed that you began to write the said book about ten or twelve years ago, after the command had been imposed upon you as above; that you requested licence to print it, without however intimating to those who granted you this licence that you had been commanded not to hold, defend, or teach in any way whatever the doctrine in question.
You likewise confessed that the writing of the said book is in various places drawn45 up in such a form that the reader might fancy that the arguments brought forward on the false side are rather calculated by their cogency46 to compel conviction than to be easy of refutation; excusing yourself for having fallen into an error, as you alleged47, so foreign to your intention, by the fact that you had written in dialogue, and by the natural complacency that every man feels in regard to his own subtleties48, and in showing himself more clever than the generality of men, in devising, even on behalf of false propositions, ingenious and plausible49 arguments.
And a suitable term having been assigned to you to prepare your defence, you produced a certificate in the handwriting of his Eminence the Lord Cardinal Bellarmine, procured50 by you, as you asserted, in order to defend yourself against the calumnies51 of your enemies, who gave out that you had abjured52 and had been punished by the Holy Office; in which certificate it is declared that you had not abjured and had not been punished, but merely that the declaration made by his Holiness and published by the Holy Congregation of the Index, had been announced to you, wherein[233] it is declared that the doctrine of the motion of the earth and the stability of the sun is contrary to the Holy Scriptures, and therefore cannot be defended or held. And as in this certificate there is no mention of the two articles of the injunction, namely, the order not “to teach” and “in any way,” you represented that we ought to believe that in the course of fourteen or sixteen years you had lost all memory of them; and that this was why you said nothing of the injunction when you requested permission to print your book. And all this you urged not by way of excuse for your error, but that it might be set down to a vainglorious54 ambition rather than to malice55. But this certificate produced by you in your defence has only aggravated56 your delinquency, since although it is there stated that the said opinion is contrary to Holy Scripture, you have nevertheless dared to discuss and defend it and to argue its probability; nor does the licence artfully and cunningly extorted57 by you avail you anything, since you did not notify the command imposed upon you.
And whereas it appeared to us that you had not stated the full truth with regard to your intention, we thought it necessary to subject you to a rigorous examination, at which (without prejudice, however, to the matters confessed by you, and set forth as above, with regard to your said intention) you answered like a good Catholic. Therefore, having seen and maturely considered the merits of this your cause, together with your confessions60 and excuses above mentioned, and all that ought justly to be seen and considered, we have arrived at the underwritten final sentence against you:—
Invoking61, therefore, the most holy name of our Lord Jesus Christ and of His most glorious Mother, and ever Virgin62 Mary, by this our final sentence, which sitting in judgment63, with the counsel and advice of the Reverend Masters of sacred theology and Doctors of both Laws, our assessors, we deliver in these writings, in the cause and causes presently before us between the magnificent Carlo Sinceri, Doctor of both Laws, Proctor Fiscal64 of this Holy Office, of the one part, and you Galileo Galilei, the defendant65, here present, tried and confessed as above, of the other part,—we say, pronounce, sentence, declare, that you, the said Galileo, by reason of the matters adduced in process, and by you confessed as above, have rendered yourself in the judgment of this Holy Office vehemently66 suspected of heresy67, namely, of having believed and held the doctrine—which is false and contrary to the sacred and divine Scriptures—that the sun is the centre of the world and does not move from east to west, and that the earth moves and is not the centre of the world; and that an opinion may be held and defended as probable after it has been declared and defined to be contrary to Holy Scripture; and that consequently you have incurred68 all the censures69 and penalties imposed and promulgated70 in the sacred canons and other constitutions, general and particular, against such delinquents71. From which we are content that you be absolved72, provided that first, with a sincere heart, and unfeigned faith, you abjure53, curse, and detest73 the aforesaid errors and[234] heresies74, and every other error and heresy contrary to the Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church in the form to be prescribed by us.
And in order that this your grave and pernicious error and transgression75 may not remain altogether unpunished, and that you may be more cautious for the future, and an example to others, that they may abstain76 from similar delinquencies—we ordain77 that the book of the “Dialogues of Galileo Galilei” be prohibited by public edict.
We condemn43 you to the formal prison of this Holy Office during our pleasure, and by way of salutary penance78, we enjoin79 that for three years to come you repeat once a week the seven penitential Psalms80.
Reserving to ourselves full liberty to moderate, commute81, or take off, in whole or in part, the aforesaid penalties and penance.
And so we say, pronounce, sentence, declare, ordain, condemn and reserve, in this and any other better way and form which we can and may lawfully82 employ.
So we the undersigned Cardinals pronounce.
F. Cardinalis de Asculo.
G. Cardinalis Bentiuolus.
Fr. Cardinalis de Cremona.
Fr. Antonius Cardinalis S. Honuphrij.
B. Cardinalis Gypsius.
Fr. Cardinalis Verospius.
M. Cardinalis Ginettus.[395]
Before proceeding to narrate83 the consequences of this sentence to the culprit (namely, his recantation and punishment), this seems to be the place to subject this memorable84 document to a critical review, to show how far the sentence pronounced on Galileo had a legal basis, even on Romish principles. To this end it will be necessary to follow the construction of the sentences step by step, for only in this way can a correct opinion be formed of the accordance of this cunningly devised structure with the actual state of things.
The sentence begins with a condensed historical review of the transactions of 1615, obviously based on the denunciations of Lorini, and the evidence of Caccini of 20th March, 1615. Immediately afterwards follows the well-known opinion of the theological Qualifiers on the principles of Copernicus.[235] This is plainly to justify85 the measures taken in consequence by the ecclesiastical authorities against his doctrine and its most distinguished86 advocate. For immediately after follows, first a recapitulation of the report registered in the Vatican MS. of the events of 25th and 26th February, 1616, and then the decree of the Congregation of the Index of 5th March, 1616, “by which those books were prohibited which treat of the aforesaid doctrine, and the same was declared to be false and entirely87 contrary to Holy and Divine Scripture.” The sentence then comes to the occasion of the trial of Galileo, namely, his “Dialogues,”—and states: firstly, that by this book he had transgressed88 the special prohibition of 1616;[396] secondly89, that his statement therein, which is almost incredible, that he had left the Copernican view undecided and as only probable, is a “gross error,” since a doctrine cannot in any way be probable (probalis) which has already been found and declared to be “contrary to Holy Scripture.”
The first point, from the standpoint of the Inquisition, which treated the note of 26th February, 1616, as an authentic91 document, is certainly correct; the second, even according to the maxims92 of Rome, is not to the purpose. According to these maxims a proposition can only be made into a dogma by “infallible” authority, namely, by the Pope speaking ex cathedra, or by an ?cumenical Council; and on the other hand, it is only by the same method that an obligation can be laid upon the faithful to consider an opinion heretical. But a decree of the Congregation of the Index does not entail93 the[236] obligation; for, although by virtue94 of the authority conferred on it, it can enforce obedience95 and inflict96 punishment, its decrees are not “infallible.” They can, however, be made so, according to ecclesiastical views, either by the subsequent express confirmation97 of the Pope by a brief in his name, as supreme head of the Christian Catholic Church; or by the decree of the Congregation being originally provided with the clause: “Sanctissimus confirmavit et publicari mandavit.” But the decree of 5th March, 1616, is neither confirmed by a subsequent brief, nor does it contain that special formula; and, therefore, in spite of this decree, which declared the opinion of Copernicus to be “false and contrary to Holy and Divine Scripture,” it might still be considered as undecided, and even probable, because the decree might be fallible, and did not entail the obligation to adopt its sentence as an article of faith.[397] This must also have been the view of the ecclesiastical[237] authorities of the censorship, who had given Galileo’s book the imprimatur, and thereby99, as H. Martin justly remarks,[398] relieved the author of responsibility, not in anything relating to the assumed special prohibition, but concerning the accordance of the work with the published decree. Point 2, therefore, seems as unjustifiable as it is untenable. The sentence now gives a brief résumé of the confessions made by Galileo during the examination, which are employed to confirm his guilt100. The twofold reproach is urged against him, as of special weight, that he began to write his “Dialogues” after the issue of the assumed prohibition, and that he said nothing about it in obtaining the imprimatur of the censors98; thus the special prohibition was treated as an established fact—on the one hand, his disobedience to an injunction of the ecclesiastical authorities was proved, and on the other, the imprimatur was obtained on false pretences101, and was null and void.
[238]
After a rather weak recapitulation of the declaration so unedifying to posterity102, made by Galileo at his second hearing, the sentence proceeds to the discussion of an authentic document which formed the chief defence of the accused: the certificate given him in 1616 by Cardinal Bellarmine. The authors of the sentence had at this point a delicate and difficult task to perform. The object was to uphold the inviolability of the “note” of 26th February, 1616—this main support of the whole indictment103—and by no means to make this attestation104 appear at variance105 with the actual circumstances, or it would have become an important argument in favour of the accused. Nay106, to avoid this rock, material for the accusation107 had to be found in the words of the certificate itself. And thus we find this document, which, as Wohlwill pertinently108 remarks,[399] by the words “but only” directly denies the assumed stringent109 prohibition of 1616, singularly enough, thanks to the sophistry110 of the Roman lawyers, forming a weighty argument in the sentence for the Inquisitors: “But this certificate,” it says, “produced by you in your defence, has only aggravated your delinquency; since although it is there stated that the said opinion is contrary to Holy Scripture, you have nevertheless dared to discuss and defend it, and to argue its probability.”
But as here they again had to refer to the protecting imprimatur of the ecclesiastical censors, they hasten to add: “nor does the licence, artfully and cunningly extorted by you, avail you anything, since you did not notify the command imposed upon you.”
One cannot help drawing the conclusion, that if the attestation of Cardinal Bellarmine is accepted as true, “the command imposed” did not exist, and of course could not be communicated by Galileo to the censors.
In the clause of the sentence referring to the attestation, a passage is dexterously111 interwoven, which ascribes the decree of 5th March, 1616, to the Pope; while, as we know,[239] it belongs officially to the Congregation alone. The words are these: “But merely that the declaration made by his Holiness (fatta da nostro Signore), and published by the Holy Congregation of the Index, had been announced to you.”
Undoubtedly112 Pope Paul V. wished the decree made and privately113 instigated114 it, as Urban VIII. did the sentence against Galileo; and in this sense the former may be attributed to the one and the latter to the other, and the condemnation115 of the Copernican theory to both. But in this they acted as private persons, and as such they were not (nor would they now be), according to theological rules, “infallible.” The conditions which would have made the decree of the Congregation, or the sentence against Galileo, of dogmatic importance, were, as we have seen, wholly wanting. Both Popes had been too cautious to endanger this highest privilege of the papacy by involving their infallible authority in the decision of a scientific controversy116; they therefore refrained from conferring their sanction, as heads of the Roman Catholic Church, on the measures taken, at their instigation, by the Congregation “to suppress the doctrine of the revolution of the earth.” Thanks to this sagacious foresight117, Roman Catholic posterity can say to this day, that Paul V. and Urban VIII. were in error “as men” about the Copernican system, but not “as Popes.” For us there remains118 the singular deduction119, that the sentence on Galileo rests again and again, even on the principles of the ecclesiastical court itself, on an illegal foundation.
After a brief mention of the rigid120 examination of 21st June, the sentence comes to formulate121 the judgment more particularly. According to this Galileo is, (1) “in the judgment of this Holy Office, vehemently suspected of heresy, namely, of having believed and held the doctrine which is false and contrary to the Sacred and Divine Scriptures ... and that an opinion may be held and defended as probable[240] after it has been declared and defined to be contrary to Holy Scripture;” (2) and that consequently he has incurred all the censures and penalties imposed in the sacred canons against such delinquents. “From which we are content that you be absolved, provided that first you abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies in the form to be supplied by us.”
Point 1, according to Romish regulations about making an opinion an article of faith, in its relation to heresy appears to be illegal and incorrect. Galileo had not laid himself open to suspicion of heresy because he had inclined to a doctrine discovered to be contrary to Scripture by the fallible Congregation of the Index. Point 2 must also, therefore, be illegal, which says that Galileo had “consequently” incurred all the censures and penalties adjudged to such criminals by the canon law.
Galileo could never have been legally condemned on suspicion of heresy from his “Dialogues.” In the first place, because neither he nor any other Catholic was bound by the decree of 5th March, 1616, to regard the confirmation of the old system or the rejection122 of the new as an article of faith; in the second place, because the imprimatur of the ecclesiastical authorities relieved him from all responsibility. But he could be condemned for disobedience to the assumed special prohibition of 26th February, 1616. In the sentence this forms the only legal basis of the indictment and condemnation. How far this prohibition is historically credible90, we think we have sufficiently123 demonstrated in the course of our work.
And when we consider the penalties which follow from this sentence, based partly upon incorrect, and partly upon false accusations124, we find that the Inquisition, by compelling Galileo to recant with a threat of other and severer penalties, far exceeded its powers. The Holy Tribunal was empowered to punish the “disobedience” of the philosopher with imprisonment and ecclesiastical penances125, and to forbid him to[241] discuss the opinion in writing or speaking, but it had no authority to extort58 from Galileo, or any one else, such a confession59 on an opinion which had not been defined by “infallible” authority.
This is openly admitted even by high theological authority: “In fact an excess of authority and an injustice126 did take place;” “but,” the reverend gentleman hastens to add, “certainly not from malice, but from a mistake,”[400]—a lenient31 opinion which we are unable to share.
Whether any scruples127 were expressed, or any dissentient voices heard in this ecclesiastical court about the manifold illegalities in the proceedings against the famous accused, we do not know, no notes having come down to us of the private discussions and transactions of the Holy Tribunal. But there is one fact which leads us to conclude that all the judges did not consent to this procedure, and that the sentence was not unanimous: at the head of the sentence ten Cardinals are enumerated128 as judges, but the document is signed by seven only, and besides this there is the express remark: “So we, the undersigned cardinals, pronounce”! Singularly enough, two hundred and thirty-one years passed by, during which much that is valuable was written about Galileo, and a great deal more that was fabulous129, before this significant circumstance was noticed by any author. The merit of having first called attention to it belongs to Professor Moritz Cantor, in 1864.[401] The three cardinals who did not sign were, Caspar Borgia, Laudivio Zacchia, and Francesco Barberini, the Pope’s nephew, whom we have repeatedly found to be a warm patron and protector of Galileo.
Professor Berti offers as an explanation of the absence of the three signatures, that the Congregation in the name of which the sentence was passed consisted of ten members, but that at the last sitting seven only were present, so that seven only could sign, and adds, as it appears to us unwarrantably,[242] “that it by no means follows that the three absentees were of a contrary opinion.”[402]
Pieralisi does not find the matter so simple, and devotes seven large pages to account for the absence of the three prelates from the Congregation. “Cardinal Borgia,” he says, “was on very bad terms with Urban VIII., because he had addressed the Pope in a loud voice in a consistory, and the Pope had imperiously told him to be quiet and to go away.”[403] But it has been proved that even after this scene the cardinal appeared at the consistories up to 12th February, 1635, although there were complaints that he took walks in Rome instead of attending the sittings of the Propaganda and the Holy Office. But it is not likely that this cardinal, whose name stands at the head of the sentence, would have absented himself from the final sitting without some good reason. Pieralisi thinks that he was more friendly to Galileo than the other cardinals, an opinion for which there is no evidence and which proves nothing. Even Pieralisi confesses that he can find no reason for the absence of Cardinal Zacchia, but assigns the following motive130 for that of Cardinal Francesco Barberini: “He probably wished to uphold the right enjoyed by the cardinal nephews, and afterwards by the secretaries of state, of sometimes abstaining131 from voting in order to reserve to themselves greater freedom in the treatment of public, private, and political affairs.” The insufficiency of this explanation is too obvious to need comment. Pieralisi himself comes to the conclusion that these dignitaries did not wish to append their signatures to the famous sentence, which is much the same thing as the conjecture132 that they did not agree to it.
In accordance with this sentence, certainly not passed[243] unanimously by the members of the Holy Tribunal, which forms one of the foulest133 blots134 in the melancholy annals of the Inquisition, Galileo was compelled immediately after hearing it to make the following degrading recantation, humbly135 kneeling, before the whole assembly:—
“I, Galileo Galilei, son of the late Vincenzo Galilei, Florentine, aged seventy years, arraigned136 personally before this tribunal, and kneeling before you, most Eminent and Reverend Lord Cardinals, Inquisitors general against heretical depravity throughout the whole Christian Republic, having before my eyes and touching137 with my hands, the holy Gospels swear that I have always believed, do now believe, and by God’s help will for the future believe, all that is held, preached, and taught by the Holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church. But whereas—after an injunction had been judicially138 intimated to me by this Holy Office, to the effect that I must altogether abandon the false opinion that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable, and that the earth is not the centre of the world, and moves, and that I must not hold, defend, or teach in any way whatsoever, verbally or in writing, the said doctrine, and after it had been notified to me that the said doctrine was contrary to Holy Scripture—I wrote and printed a book in which I discuss this doctrine already condemned, and adduce arguments of great cogency in its favour, without presenting any solution of these; and for this cause I have been pronounced by the Holy Office to be vehemently suspected of heresy, that is to say, of having held and believed that the sun is the centre of the world and immovable, and that the earth is not the centre and moves:—
Therefore, desiring to remove from the minds of your Eminences139, and of all faithful Christians140, this strong suspicion, reasonably conceived against me, with sincere heart and unfeigned faith I abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors and heresies, and generally every other error and sect141 whatsoever contrary to the said Holy Church; and I swear that in future I will never again say or assert, verbally or in writing, anything that might furnish occasion for a similar suspicion regarding me; but that should I know any heretic, or person suspected of heresy, I will denounce him to this Holy Office, or to the Inquisitor and ordinary of the place where I may be. Further, I swear and promise to fulfil and observe in their integrity all penances that have been, or that shall be, imposed upon me by this Holy Office. And, in the event of my contravening142, (which God forbid!) any of these my promises, protestations, and oaths, I submit myself to all the pains and penalties imposed and promulgated in the sacred canons and other constitutions, general and particular, against such delinquents. So help me God, and these His holy Gospels, which I touch with my hands.
I, the said Galileo Galilei, have abjured, sworn, promised, and bound[244] myself as above; and in witness of the truth thereof I have with my own hand subscribed143 the present document of my abjuration144, and recited it word for word at Rome, in the Convent of Minerva, this twenty-second day of June, 1633.
I, Galileo Galilei, have abjured as above with my own hand.”[404]
Certain Catholic writers express the hope, at the expense of truth, for the sake of Galileo’s salvation145 and honour, that he really had, from conviction, renounced146 the opinion which he had been labouring for and advocating up to old age. Indeed, the super-Catholic author of an essay, called “The Holy See against Galileo Galilei and the Astronomical147 System of Copernicus,”[405] does not hesitate to say: “Probably the physical absurdities148 of his (Galileo’s) doctrine had achieved a victory for the voice of reason and religion.”[406] Undoubtedly there were many physical difficulties in the way of a general acceptance of the new doctrines149 (especially the prevailing150 incorrect ideas about the specific gravity of the air),[407] and they were only finally overcome by the discovery of the law of gravitation by the genius of Newton; but they were not so great as to prevent men, like Kepler, Descartes, Gassendi, Diodati, Philip Landsberg, Joachim Rh?ticus, and others, and above all, the great Italian reformer of physics and astronomy, from, even at that time, recognising the truth of the new theory. It does not appear, either, that the author of that article had much faith in his own conjecture, for he proceeds to a demonstration151, from opposite premises152, which was for a time much in vogue153 with the Jesuitical defenders[245] of the Inquisition against Galileo, and which must therefore be briefly154 mentioned.
This was nothing less than an attempt to show that even if Galileo held the Copernican system to be the only true one, he could, thanks to the wording of the formula of recantation, utter it without doing violence to his conscience; or, what is now known to be truth.[408] Galileo swore that he never had believed and never would believe (1) “that the sun was the centre of the earth and immovable.” That he could easily do, says our author, for, in relation to the fixed155 stars, the sun by no means forms the centre; and heavy bodies on the earth fall towards its centre and not towards the sun, which, also, in this sense, was not the centre! There was no difficulty for Galileo in recanting that the sun was immovable, for he had himself concluded from the motion of the spots that it revolved156 on its own axis157.[409] As to the earth, he abjured it as an error (2) that “the earth is not the centre;” quite right, for it is the centre for heavy bodies: and it was not said—“the centre of the universe;” (3) “that the earth moves;” vast efforts of sophistry were necessary to make this desperately158 precise proposition square with the arguments of this curious casuist. He therefore says, that as, according to the wording, it is not the diurnal motion of the earth that is in question, this proposition has quite a different meaning, in which, on the one hand, it must be said that the earth is immovable, and on the other, that it is only motion through the air from one place to another that is excluded. The earth may certainly, both in relation to its physical conformation and in contrast to what goes on upon it, be called immovable![410] At the time when these lines were written, in 1875, the author of this article in the “Historisch-politischen Bl?ttern” was unknown to us. Afterwards, through the liberality of the Bavarian Government, among other works relating to Galileo[246] in the Royal Library, the following were lent to us:—(1) “Di Copernico e di Galileo, scritto postumo del P. Maurizio-Benedetto Olivieri, Ex. generale dei domenicani e Commissario della S. Rom. ed Univ. Inquisizione ora per la prima volta messo in luce sull’ autografo per cura d’un religioso dello stesso istituto. Bologna, 1872”; (2) “Il S. Officio, Copernico e Galileo a proposito di un opusculo postumo del P. Olivieri sullo stesso argomento apunti di Gilberto Govi. Torino, 1872.” To our no small surprise we found, on reading the former, that it had by no means “seen the light” for the first time in 1872, but had appeared thirty-one years before in a literal German translation, as the article above mentioned in the “Historisch-politischen Bl?ttern,” with a few insignificant159 alterations160, and a different title, the old one being given in a note. Neither the editor of the first Italian work of Olivieri, the Dominican monk161, Fra. Tommaso Bonora, nor the author of the above rejoinder,[411] Gilberto Govi, had, as appears from what they say, the least idea of this singular fact. In Germany, Professor Clemens of Bonn, was universally believed to be the author of this article, which excited great attention; so firmly was it held, that Professor Moritz Cantor, in a notice of the present work, gave no credence162 to our discovery, but stated in his critique, “The anonymous163 writer was not Olivieri, but Professor Clemens of Bonn.”[412] Upon this we sent Professor Cantor the essay from the “Historisch-politischen Bl?ttern” and Bonora’s work for examination, when he was constrained164 to be convinced by the sight of his own eyes.
The wretched attempt thus to clear the Inquisition, by[247] Olivieri’s method, of the reproach of having extorted an oath from Galileo entirely against his convictions, is unworthy of refutation. By impartial165 posterity the oath is and must be regarded as perjury166, and is all the more repulsive167 because the promise was coupled with it that, “if he met with a heretic, or person suspected of heresy,” he would denounce him to the authorities of the Church; that is, the master would denounce his disciples—for by a “heretic, or any one suspected of heresy,” the adherents168 of the Copernican system must be chiefly understood—to the persecution169 of the Inquisition! The taking of this degrading oath may, under the circumstances, be excused, but it never can be justified170.
After this painful act of world-wide interest had been completed, Galileo was conducted back to the buildings of the Holy Office. Now that he and the Copernican system had been condemned with becoming solemnity by the Holy Office, Urban VIII. magnanimously gave the word for mercy; that is, Galileo was not, as the sentence prescribed, detained in the prisons of the Inquisition, but a restricted amount of liberty was granted him. The Roman curia never entirely let go its hold upon him as long as he lived. On the day after the sentence was passed, the Pope exchanged imprisonment for temporary banishment, to the villa171 of the Grand Duke of Tuscany at Trinita de’ Monti, near Rome,[413] whither Niccolini conducted his unfortunate friend on the evening of 24th June, as we find from the despatch172 before quoted from him to Cioli of 26th of the month.[414]
We learn from the same source that while Galileo took the prohibition of his book, of which he was aware beforehand, with tolerable composure, the unexpected proceedings of the Holy Office against him personally, affected173 him most deeply. Niccolini did his best to rouse him from his deep depression, but at first with little success.[415] Galileo longed[248] to leave Rome, where he had suffered so much, and therefore addressed the following petition to Urban VIII.:—
“Most Holy Father! Galileo Galilei most humbly begs your Holiness to exchange the place assigned to him for his prison near Rome, for some other in Florence, which may appear suitable to your Holiness, in consideration of his poor health, and also because the petitioner174 is expecting a sister with eight children from Germany, to whom no one can afford help and protection so well as himself. He will receive any disposition175 of your Holiness as a great favour.”[416]
But in the Vatican the opinion prevailed that to allow Galileo to return to Florence already would be a superfluity of indulgence. The Pope said to Niccolini: “We must proceed gently, and only rehabilitate176 Galileo by degrees.”[417] Still Urban was disposed to grant the ambassador’s request, and to alter the penalty so far as to allow the exile to go to Siena, to the house of the Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini, whom we know as a warm friend of Galileo’s. Niccolini’s urgent entreaties177 succeeded in obtaining a papal decree of 30th June, ordering Galileo to go by the shortest route to Siena, to go to the Archbishop’s at once, to remain there, and strictly178 to obey his orders; and he was not to leave that city without permission from the Congregation.[418] Galileo was informed of this decree on 2nd July by the Commissary-General of the Inquisition, Father Vincenzo Maccolani di Firenzuola, in person.[419] On 10th July, Niccolini reported to Cioli: “Signor Galileo set out early on Wednesday, 6th July, in good health, for Siena, and writes to me from Viterbo, that he had performed four miles on foot, the weather being very cool.”
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
prohibition
|
|
| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
imprisonment
|
|
| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
banishment
|
|
| n.放逐，驱逐 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
melancholy
|
|
| n.忧郁，愁思；adj.令人感伤（沮丧）的，忧郁的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
proceeding
|
|
| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
proceedings
|
|
| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
cardinals
|
|
| 红衣主教( cardinal的名词复数 )； 红衣凤头鸟（见于北美，雄鸟为鲜红色）； 基数 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
cardinal
|
|
| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
pane
|
|
| n.窗格玻璃，长方块 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
specially
|
|
| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
Christian
|
|
| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
aged
|
|
| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
diurnal
|
|
| adj.白天的，每日的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
disciples
|
|
| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
disciple
|
|
| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
mathematicians
|
|
| 数学家( mathematician的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
scripture
|
|
| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
scriptures
|
|
| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
glossing
|
|
| v.注解( gloss的现在分词 )；掩饰（错误）；粉饰；把…搪塞过去 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
purporting
|
|
| v.声称是…，（装得）像是…的样子( purport的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
formerly
|
|
| adv.从前，以前 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
divers
|
|
| adj.不同的；种种的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
forth
|
|
| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
disorder
|
|
| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
mischief
|
|
| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
eminent
|
|
| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
supreme
|
|
| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
qualified
|
|
| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
philosophically
|
|
| adv.哲学上；富有哲理性地；贤明地；冷静地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
lenient
|
|
| adj.宽大的，仁慈的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
leniently
|
|
| 温和地，仁慈地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
eminence
|
|
| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
acquiescence
|
|
| n.默许；顺从 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
imprisoned
|
|
| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
admonished
|
|
| v.劝告( admonish的过去式和过去分词 )；训诫；（温和地）责备；轻责 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
notary
|
|
| n.公证人，公证员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
whatsoever
|
|
| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
promising
|
|
| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
insinuate
|
|
| vt.含沙射影地说，暗示 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
violation
|
|
| n.违反(行为)，违背(行为)，侵犯 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
previously
|
|
| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
condemn
|
|
| vt.谴责，指责；宣判(罪犯)，判刑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
condemned
|
|
| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
drawn
|
|
| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
cogency
|
|
| n.说服力；adj.有说服力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
alleged
|
|
| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
subtleties
|
|
| 细微( subtlety的名词复数 )； 精细； 巧妙； 细微的差别等 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
plausible
|
|
| adj.似真实的，似乎有理的，似乎可信的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
procured
|
|
| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
calumnies
|
|
| n.诬蔑，诽谤，中伤（的话）( calumny的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
abjured
|
|
| v.发誓放弃( abjure的过去式和过去分词 )；郑重放弃（意见）；宣布撤回（声明等）；避免 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
abjure
|
|
| v.发誓放弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
vainglorious
|
|
| adj.自负的；夸大的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
malice
|
|
| n.恶意，怨恨，蓄意；[律]预谋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
aggravated
|
|
| 使恶化( aggravate的过去式和过去分词 )； 使更严重； 激怒； 使恼火 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
extorted
|
|
| v.敲诈( extort的过去式和过去分词 )；曲解 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
extort
|
|
| v.勒索，敲诈，强要 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
confession
|
|
| n.自白，供认，承认 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
confessions
|
|
| n.承认( confession的名词复数 )；自首；声明；（向神父的）忏悔 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
invoking
|
|
| v.援引( invoke的现在分词 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
virgin
|
|
| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
judgment
|
|
| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
fiscal
|
|
| adj.财政的，会计的，国库的，国库岁入的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
defendant
|
|
| n.被告；adj.处于被告地位的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
vehemently
|
|
| adv. 热烈地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
heresy
|
|
| n.异端邪说；异教 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
incurred
|
|
| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
censures
|
|
| v.指责，非难，谴责( censure的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
promulgated
|
|
| v.宣扬（某事物）( promulgate的过去式和过去分词 )；传播；公布；颁布（法令、新法律等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
delinquents
|
|
| n.（尤指青少年）有过失的人，违法的人( delinquent的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
absolved
|
|
| 宣告…无罪，赦免…的罪行，宽恕…的罪行( absolve的过去式和过去分词 )； 不受责难，免除责任 [义务] ,开脱（罪责） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
detest
|
|
| vt.痛恨，憎恶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
heresies
|
|
| n.异端邪说，异教( heresy的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
transgression
|
|
| n.违背；犯规；罪过 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
abstain
|
|
| v.自制，戒绝，弃权，避免 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
ordain
|
|
| vi.颁发命令；vt.命令，授以圣职，注定，任命 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
penance
|
|
| n.（赎罪的）惩罪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
enjoin
|
|
| v.命令；吩咐；禁止 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
psalms
|
|
| n.赞美诗( psalm的名词复数 )；圣诗；圣歌；(中的) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
commute
|
|
| vi.乘车上下班；vt.减(刑)；折合；n.上下班交通 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
lawfully
|
|
| adv.守法地，合法地；合理地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
narrate
|
|
| v.讲，叙述 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
memorable
|
|
| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
justify
|
|
| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
distinguished
|
|
| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
entirely
|
|
| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
transgressed
|
|
| v.超越( transgress的过去式和过去分词 )；越过；违反；违背 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
secondly
|
|
| adv.第二，其次 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
credible
|
|
| adj.可信任的，可靠的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
authentic
|
|
| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
maxims
|
|
| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
entail
|
|
| vt.使承担，使成为必要，需要 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
virtue
|
|
| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
obedience
|
|
| n.服从，顺从 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
inflict
|
|
| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
confirmation
|
|
| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
censors
|
|
| 删剪（书籍、电影等中被认为犯忌、违反道德或政治上危险的内容）( censor的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
thereby
|
|
| adv.因此，从而 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
guilt
|
|
| n.犯罪；内疚；过失，罪责 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
pretences
|
|
| n.假装( pretence的名词复数 )；作假；自命；自称 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
posterity
|
|
| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
indictment
|
|
| n.起诉；诉状 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
attestation
|
|
| n.证词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
variance
|
|
| n.矛盾，不同 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
nay
|
|
| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
accusation
|
|
| n.控告，指责，谴责 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
pertinently
|
|
| 适切地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
stringent
|
|
| adj.严厉的；令人信服的；银根紧的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
sophistry
|
|
| n.诡辩 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
dexterously
|
|
| adv.巧妙地，敏捷地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
undoubtedly
|
|
| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
privately
|
|
| adv.以私人的身份，悄悄地，私下地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
instigated
|
|
| v.使（某事物）开始或发生，鼓动( instigate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
condemnation
|
|
| n.谴责; 定罪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
116
controversy
|
|
| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
foresight
|
|
| n.先见之明，深谋远虑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
deduction
|
|
| n.减除，扣除，减除额；推论，推理，演绎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
rigid
|
|
| adj.严格的，死板的；刚硬的，僵硬的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
formulate
|
|
| v.用公式表示；规划；设计；系统地阐述 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
rejection
|
|
| n.拒绝，被拒，抛弃，被弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
sufficiently
|
|
| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
accusations
|
|
| n.指责( accusation的名词复数 )；指控；控告；（被告发、控告的）罪名 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
penances
|
|
| n.（赎罪的）苦行，苦修( penance的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
injustice
|
|
| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
scruples
|
|
| n.良心上的不安( scruple的名词复数 )；顾虑，顾忌v.感到于心不安，有顾忌( scruple的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
enumerated
|
|
| v.列举，枚举，数( enumerate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
fabulous
|
|
| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
motive
|
|
| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
131
abstaining
|
|
| 戒（尤指酒），戒除( abstain的现在分词 )； 弃权（不投票） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
132
conjecture
|
|
| n./v.推测，猜测 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
133
foulest
|
|
| adj.恶劣的( foul的最高级 )；邪恶的；难闻的；下流的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
134
blots
|
|
| 污渍( blot的名词复数 )； 墨水渍； 错事； 污点 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
135
humbly
|
|
| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
136
arraigned
|
|
| v.告发( arraign的过去式和过去分词 )；控告；传讯；指责 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
137
touching
|
|
| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
138
judicially
|
|
| 依法判决地，公平地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
139
eminences
|
|
| 卓越( eminence的名词复数 )； 著名； 高地； 山丘 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
140
Christians
|
|
| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
141
sect
|
|
| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
142
contravening
|
|
| v.取消，违反( contravene的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
143
subscribed
|
|
| v.捐助( subscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；签署，题词；订阅；同意 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
144
abjuration
|
|
| n.发誓弃绝 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
145
salvation
|
|
| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
146
renounced
|
|
| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
147
astronomical
|
|
| adj.天文学的，（数字）极大的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
148
absurdities
|
|
| n.极端无理性( absurdity的名词复数 )；荒谬；谬论；荒谬的行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
149
doctrines
|
|
| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
150
prevailing
|
|
| adj.盛行的；占优势的；主要的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
151
demonstration
|
|
| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
152
premises
|
|
| n.建筑物，房屋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
153
Vogue
|
|
| n.时髦，时尚；adj.流行的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
154
briefly
|
|
| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
155
fixed
|
|
| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
156
revolved
|
|
| v.（使）旋转( revolve的过去式和过去分词 )；细想 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
157
axis
|
|
| n.轴，轴线，中心线；坐标轴，基准线 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
158
desperately
|
|
| adv.极度渴望地，绝望地，孤注一掷地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
159
insignificant
|
|
| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
160
alterations
|
|
| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
161
monk
|
|
| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
162
credence
|
|
| n.信用，祭器台，供桌，凭证 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
163
anonymous
|
|
| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
164
constrained
|
|
| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
165
impartial
|
|
| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
166
perjury
|
|
| n.伪证；伪证罪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
167
repulsive
|
|
| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
168
adherents
|
|
| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
169
persecution
|
|
| n. 迫害,烦扰 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
170
justified
|
|
| a.正当的，有理的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
171
villa
|
|
| n.别墅，城郊小屋 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
172
despatch
|
|
| n./v.(dispatch)派遣；发送；n.急件；新闻报道 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
173
affected
|
|
| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
174
petitioner
|
|
| n.请愿人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
175
disposition
|
|
| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
176
rehabilitate
|
|
| vt.改造(罪犯)，修复；vi.复兴，(罪犯)经受改造 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
177
entreaties
|
|
| n.恳求，乞求( entreaty的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
178
strictly
|
|
| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |