As the belief is entertained by our guides in this matter that greater differentiation3, or specialization of parts, denotes higher organization, it is believed that the division of labour by which the germ is prepared by one individual and the sperm4 by another individual, as is the case at the present time with all the higher orders of life, constitutes an important step in the line of progress. Here this line of argument ceases, and, until very recent15 times, concerning the course of development followed by each sex little has been heard. This silence on a subject of such vital importance to the student of biology is not perhaps difficult to understand; the conclusion, however, is unavoidable that the individual which must nourish and protect the germ, and by processes carried on within her own body provide nourishment5 for the young during its prenatal existence, and sometimes for years after birth, must have the more highly specialized6 organism, and must, therefore, represent the higher stage of development. Indeed, it is admitted by scientists that the advance from the egg-layers to the milk-givers indicates one of the most important steps in the entire line of development; and yet the peculiar7 specialization of structure necessary for its accomplishment8 was for the most part carried on within the female organism.
Concerning the origin of sex in the individual organism little seems to be known; as a result, however, of observations on the development of the reproductive organs in the higher vertebrates, and especially in birds, it is believed that there exists a “strict parallelism between the individual and the racial history,”—that the three main stages in the development of the chick, viz.: (1) germi-parity, (2) hermaphroditism, and (3) differentiated9 unisexuality, correspond to the three great steps of historic evolution.
By a careful investigation10 of the facts connected16 with the development of unisexual forms, we are enabled to discover the early beginnings of the characteristics which distinguish the two sexes throughout their entire course. We are told that with animals which have their sexes separate, in addition to strictly11 sexual difference
the male possesses certain organs of sense or locomotion12, of which the female is quite destitute13, or has them more highly developed, in order that he may readily find or reach her; or again the male has special organs of prehension for holding her securely. These latter organs, of infinitely14 diversified15 kinds, graduate into those which are commonly ranked as primary.4
The female, on the other hand, in addition to those sexual characters which are strictly primary, has “organs for the nourishment or protection of her young, such as the mammary glands16 of mammals, and the abdominal17 sacks of the marsupials.” In addition to these she is frequently provided with organs for the defence of the community; for instance, “the females of most bees are provided with a special apparatus18 for collecting and carrying pollen19, and their ovipositor is modified into a sting for the defence of the larv? and the community.” We are assured by Mr. Darwin that many similar cases could be given.5
Here, then, with almost the first or primary step toward sexual differentiation, may be observed17 the establishment of that peculiar bias20 which upon investigation will be seen to extend all along the two lines of sexual demarcation, and which (to anticipate the conclusions of our argument), as soon as mankind is reached, appears in the male as extreme egoism or selfishness, and in the female as altruism21 or care for other individuals outside of self.
We are assured, however, that it is not alone to the reproductive organs and their functions that we are to look for the chief differences in the constitution and character of the sexes. Neither is it entirely22 to Natural Selection that we are to seek for the causes which underlie23 the specialization peculiar to the two diverging24 lines of sexual demarcation; in addition to primary sexual divergences25, there are also “secondary sexual characters” which are of great importance to their possessor. Indeed, from the prominence26 given to Sexual Selection by Mr. Darwin, it would seem that it played a part in the development of males quite equal to that of Natural Selection itself.
Now the difference between Natural Selection and Sexual Selection is that, whereas, in the former, characters are developed and preserved which are of use to the individual in overcoming the unfavourable conditions of environment, by the latter, only those characters are acquired and preserved which assist the individual in overcoming the obstacles to reproduction; or, to use Mr. Darwin’s own language:
18
[Sexual Selection] depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over others of the same sex and species solely27 in respect of reproduction.... [Where] the males have acquired their present structure, not from being better fitted to survive in the struggle of existence, but from having gained an advantage over other males, and from having transmitted this advantage to their male offspring alone, sexual selection must here have come into action.... A slight degree of variability leading to some advantage, however slight, in reiterated28 deadly contests would suffice for the work of sexual selection; and it is certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently29 variable. Just as man can give beauty, according to his standard of taste, to his male poultry30, or more strictly can modify the beauty originally acquired by the parent species, can give to the Sebright bantam a new and elegant plumage, an erect31 and peculiar carriage—so it appears the female birds in a state of nature, have by a long selection of the more attractive males, added to their beauty or other attractive qualities.6
Thus, according to Mr. Darwin, it is through a long selection by females of the more attractive males that the present structure of the latter has been acquired. If, in a short time, a man can give elegant carriage and beauty to his bantams, according to his standard of beauty, he can see no reason to doubt that female birds, by selecting during thousands of generations the most melodious32 or beautiful males, according to their19 standard of beauty, might produce a marked effect. He says:
To sum up on the means through which, as far as we can judge, sexual selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters. It has been shown that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be reared from the pairing of the strongest and best armed males, victorious33 in contests over other males, with the most vigorous and best-nourished females, which are the first to breed in the spring. If such females select the more attractive, and at the same time vigorous males, they will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded34 females, which must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive males.... The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in rearing a larger number of offspring has apparently35 sufficed to render sexual selection efficient.7
Although the belief is common among naturalists that the appearance of secondary sexual characters belonging to males is greatly influenced by female choice, a majority of writers upon this subject are not in sympathy with Mr. Darwin’s theory concerning the origin of these variations. It is believed by them that Sexual Selection “may account for the perfecting, but not for the origin, of these characters.”
It is useless, however, to rehearse the opinions of the various writers who have dealt with this subject. It is perhaps sufficient to state that20 the great beauty of males has usually been accepted as evidence of their superiority over the females.
In his chapter, “The Male generally more Modified than the Female,” Mr. Darwin remarks: “Appearances would indicate that not the male which is most attractive to the female is chosen, but the one which is least distasteful.” He says that the aversion of female birds for certain males renders the season of courtship one of great anxiety and discomfiture36, not only to many of the more poorly endowed aspirants37, but to those also which are more magnificently attired—that the pairing ground becomes a field of battle, upon which, while parading their charms to the best advantage, is sacrificed much of the gorgeous plumage of the contestants38. On the wooing ground are displayed for the admiration39 and approval of the females, all the physical attractions of the males, as well as the mental characters correlated with them, namely, courage, and pugnacity40 or perseverance41. According to Mr. Darwin, with the exception of vanity, no other quality is in any considerable degree manifested by male birds, but to such an extent has love of display been developed in many of them, notably42 the pea-fowl, that, “in the absence of females of his own species, he will show off his finery before poultry and even pigs.” We are assured that the higher we ascend43 in the animal kingdom the more frequent and more violent become two desires in the male:21 “the desire of appearing beautiful, and that of driving away rivals.” According to Mr. Darwin’s theory of development, because of the indifference44 of the female among the lower orders of life to the processes of courtship, it has been necessary for the male to expend45 much energy or vital force in searching for her—in contending with his rivals for possession of her person, and in performing various acts to please her and secure her favours. While excessive eagerness in courtship is the one all-absorbing character of male fishes, birds, and mammals, we are assured that with the females, pairing is not only a matter of indifference, but that courtship is actually distasteful to them, and, therefore, that the former must resort to the various means referred to in order to induce the latter to submit to their advances.
We are informed that the female is sometimes charmed through the power of song; that at other times she is captivated by the diversified means which have been acquired by male insects and birds for producing various sounds resembling those proceeding46 from certain kinds of musical instruments; and not unfrequently she is won by means of antics or love dances performed on the ground or in the air. On the pairing-ground, combs, wattles, elongated47 plumes48, top-knots, and fancy-coloured feathers are paraded for the admiration and approval of the females. Led by the all-absorbing instinct of desire,
22
the males display their charms with elaborate care and to the best effect; and this is done in the presence of the females.... To suppose that the females do not appreciate the beauty of the males, is to admit that their splendid decorations, and all their pomp and display, are useless; and this is incredible.8
Topknots, gaudy49 feathers, elongated plumes among birds, huge tusks50, horns, etc., among mammals, the mane of the lion, and the beard of man, may be noticed among the many characters which have been acquired through Sexual Selection.
Although the immense teeth, tusks, horns, and various other weapons or appendages51 which ornament52 the males of many species of mammals, have all been developed through Sexual Selection for contending with their rivals for the favours of the females, it is observed that the “most pugnacious53 and best armed males seldom depend for success on their ability to drive away or kill their rivals,” but that their special aim is to “charm the female.” Mr. Darwin quotes from a “good observer,” who believes that the battles of male birds “are all a sham54, performed to show themselves to the greatest advantage before the admiring females who assemble around.”9
In The Descent of Man is quoted the following from Mr. Belt, who, after describing the beauty of the Florisuga mellivora, says:
23
I have seen the female sitting on a branch, and two males displaying their charms in front of her. One would shoot up like a rocket, then suddenly expanding the snow-white tail, like an inverted55 parachute, slowly descend56 in front of her, turning round gradually to show off back and front.... The expanded white tail covered more space than all the rest of the bird, and was evidently the grand feature in the performance. Whilst one male was descending57, the other would shoot up and come slowly down expanded. The entertainment would end in a fight between the two performers; but whether the most beautiful or the most pugnacious was the accepted suitor, I know not.10
Audubon, who spent a long life in observing birds, has no doubt that the female deliberately58 chooses her mate. Of the woodpecker he says the hen is followed by half a dozen suitors, who continue performing strange antics “until a marked preference is shown for one.” Of the red-winged starling it is said that she is pursued by several males “until, becoming fatigued59, she alights, receives their addresses, and soon makes a choice.”11 Mr. Darwin quotes further from Audubon, who says that among the Virginia goat-suckers, no sooner has the female “made her choice than her approved gives chase to all intruders, and drives them beyond his dominions60.”
It is said that among mammals the male depends almost entirely upon his strength and courage to24 “charm the female.” With reference to the struggles between animals for the possession of the females, Mr. Darwin says:
This fact is so notorious that it would be superfluous61 to give instances. Hence the females have the opportunity of selecting one out of several males, on the supposition that their mental capacity suffices for the exertion62 of a choice.12
We are assured that among nearly all the lower orders of life the female exhibits a marked preference for certain individuals, and that an equal degree of repugnance63 is manifested towards others, but that the male, whose predominant character is desire, “is ready to pair with any female.” On this subject Mr. Darwin remarks: “The general impression seems to be that the male accepts any female.” He says it frequently occurs that while two males are fighting together to win the favours of a female, she goes away with a third for whom she has a preference. Mr. Darwin quotes from Captain Bryant, who says of a certain species of seals:
Many of the females on their arrival at the island where they breed, appear desirous of returning to some particular male, and frequently climb the outlying rock to overlook the rookeries, calling out and listening as if for a familiar voice. Then changing to another place they do the same again.13
25
Little seems to be known of the courtship of animals in a state of nature. Among domesticated64 species, however, many observations have been made by breeders going to prove that the female exerts a choice in pairing. Concerning dogs, Mr. Darwin quotes from Mr. Mayhew, who says: “The females are able to bestow65 their affections; and tender recollections are as potent66 over them as they are known to be in other cases where higher animals are concerned.” Of the affection of female dogs for certain males the same writer says it “becomes of more than romantic endurance,” that they manifest a “devotion which no time can afterwards subdue67.”
On concluding his chapter on choice in pairing among quadrupeds, Mr. Darwin remarks:
It is improbable that the unions of quadrupeds in a state of nature should be left to mere68 chance. It is much more probable that the females are allured69 or excited by particular males, who possess certain characters in a higher degree than other males.14
As the female among birds selects her partner, he thinks it would be a strange anomaly if among quadrupeds, which stand higher in the scale and have higher mental powers, she did not also exert a choice.15
26
Because of the indifference of the female to the attentions of the male, in order to carry on the processes of reproduction, it was necessary among the lower orders that the male become eager in his pursuit of her, and as a result of this eagerness excessive passion was developed in him. As the most eager would be the most successful in propagating, they would leave the greatest number of offspring to inherit their characters—namely, in males, passion and pugnacity correlated with the physical qualities acquired through Sexual Selection.
On the subject of the acquirement of secondary sexual characters, Mr. Darwin says: “The great eagerness of the males has thus indirectly70 led to their much more frequently developing secondary sexual characters.” Indeed, by all naturalists, the fact is recognized that the appearance of these characters is closely connected with the reproductive function.
Later experiments have confirmed the observations of Mr. Darwin concerning the intelligence of27 the female among the lower orders of life. Among these experiments are those recently made by Professor Harper, of the Department of Biology, in the Northwestern University. Professor Harper announces that in all the experiments conducted by him, the female animal showed a greater degree of perception, or intelligence, than the male. He says: “In all my experiments, I found that the female displayed a remarkable71 quickness in grasping ideas which the male after numerous sluggish72 efforts finally accomplished73.” Professor Harper declared that these facts regarding animals apply with equal force to human beings.
Regarding the power of the female to appreciate the beauty of the males, Mr. Darwin says:
No doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female which will at first appear extremely improbable; but by the facts to be adduced hereafter, I hope to be able to show that the females actually have these powers.16
In commenting on the fact that the female Argus pheasant appreciates the exquisite74 shading of the ball-and-socket ornaments75, and the elegant patterns on the wing-feathers of the male, Mr. Darwin writes:
He who thinks that the male was created as he now exists, must admit that the great plumes which prevent the wings from being used for flight, and which are28 displayed at courtship and at no other time, in a manner quite peculiar to this species, were given to him as ornaments. If so he must likewise admit that the female was created and endowed with the capacity for appreciating such ornaments. Every one who admits the principle of evolution, and yet feels great difficulty in believing the high taste implied by the beauty of the males, and which generally coincides with our own standard, should reflect that the nerve cells of the brain in the highest as in the lowest members of the vertebrate series are derived76 from those of the common progenitor77 of this great kingdom.
In referring to the remarkable patterns displayed on the male Argus pheasant, designs which have been developed through Sexual Selection, Mr. Darwin says:
Many will declare that it is utterly78 incredible that a female bird should be able to appreciate fine shading and exquisite patterns. It is undoubtedly79 a marvellous fact that she should possess this almost human degree of taste. He who thinks that he can safely gauge80 the discrimination and taste of the lower animals may deny that the female Argus pheasant can appreciate such refined beauty; but he will then be compelled to admit that the extraordinary attitudes assumed by the male during the act of courtship, by which the wonderful beauty of his plumage is fully81 displayed, are purposeless; and this is a conclusion which I, for one, will never admit.17
29
Here, then, in the female bird we see developed in a remarkable degree the power of discrimination, the exercise of taste, a sense of beauty, and the ability to choose—qualities which the facts brought forward by scientists show conclusively82 to have been acquired by the female and by her transmitted to her offspring. Regarding males, outside the instinct for self-preservation, which, by the way, is often overshadowed by their great sexual eagerness, no distinguishing characters have been acquired and transmitted, other than those which have been the result of passion, namely, pugnacity and perseverance. This excessive eagerness which prompts them to parade their charms whenever such display is likely to aid them in the gratification of their desires is developed only in the male line.
According to the law of heredity, those modifications83 of the male which have been the result of Sexual Selection appear only in the sex in which they originated. It will be well for us to remember that according to Mr. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis, sexes do not differ much in constitution before the power of reproduction is reached, but that after this time the undeveloped atoms or
gemmules which are cast off from each varying part in the one sex would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities84 for uniting with the tissues of the same sex, and thus becoming developed, than with those of the opposite sex.18
30
We are given to understand that secondary sexual characters are extremely variable, also that variability denotes low organization; secondary sexual characters indicate that the various organs of the structure have not become specialized for the performance of their legitimate85 functions. Highly specialized forms are not variable.
To sum up the argument thus far: It has been observed that through the separation of the sexes, and the consequent division of labour, there have been established two diverging lines of development. While the male pheasant has been inheriting from his male progenitors86 fantastic ball-and-socket ornaments, and huge wings which are utterly useless for their legitimate purpose, the female, in the meantime, has been receiving as her inheritance only those peculiarities87 of structure which tend toward uninterrupted development. Within her have been stored or conserved88 all the gain which has been effected through Natural Selection, and as a result of greater specialization of parts, there have been developed certain peculiarities in her brain nerve-cells, by which she is enabled to exercise functions requiring a considerable degree of intelligence.
Although this power of choice, which we are given to understand is exercised by the female throughout the various departments of the vertebrate kingdom (evidences of it having been observed among creatures even as low in the organic scale as fishes), implies a degree of intelligence31 far in advance of that manifested by males, it is admitted that the qualities which bespeak89 this superiority, namely, the power to exercise taste and discrimination, constitute a “law almost as general as the eagerness of the male.”19
We are assured by Mr. Darwin that in the economy of nature those ornaments of the male Argus pheasant which serve no other purpose than to please the female and secure her favours, and which have been acquired at great expense of vital force, are of the “highest importance to him,” and that his success in captivating the female “has more than compensated90 him for his greatly impeded91 power of flight and his lessened92 capacity for running.” Yet it is plain that his compensation for this immense expenditure93 of vital force has not lain in the direction of higher specialization, but that while by the acquirement of these characters the processes of reproduction have doubtless been aided, the injury to the male constitution has been deep and lasting94.
Upon this subject Mr. Darwin himself says:
The development, however, of certain structures—of the horns, for instance, in certain stags—has been carried to a wonderful extreme; and in some cases to an extreme which, as far as the general conditions of life are concerned, must be slightly injurious to the male.20
32
He thinks, however, that
Natural Selection will determine that such characters shall not be acquired by the victorious males if they would be highly injurious, either by expending95 too much of their vital powers or by exposing them to any great danger.
According to Mr. Darwin, as these characters enable them to leave a more numerous progeny96, their advantages are in the long run greater than those derived from more perfect adaptation to their conditions of life. It is plain, however, that this advantage, although it enables them to gratify their desires, and at the same time to perpetuate97 their species, does not imply higher development for the male organism.
We have been assured by our guides in these matters that in the processes of evolution there is no continuous or unbroken chain of progress, that growth or change does not necessarily imply development, but, on the contrary, only as a structure becomes better fitted for its conditions, and only as its organs become more highly specialized for the performance of all the duties involved in its environment, may it be said to be in the line of progress. If this be true, particular attention should be directed to the fact that as secondary sexual characters do not assist their possessor in overcoming the unfavourable conditions of his environment, they are not within the line of true development, but, on the contrary, as their growth33 requires a great expenditure of vital force, and, as is the case among birds, they often hinder the free use of the legs in running and walking, and entirely destroy the use of the wings for flight, they must be detrimental98 to the entire structure. For the reason that females have managed to do without them, the plea that the great tusks, horns, teeth, etc., of mammals have been acquired for self-defence, is scarcely tenable.
On the subject of the relative expenditure of vital force in the two lines of sexual demarcation, Mr. Darwin remarks:
The female has to expend much organic matter in the formation of her ova, whereas the male expends99 much force in fierce contests with his rivals, in wandering about in search of the female, in exerting his voice, pouring out odoriferous secretions100, etc.... In mankind, and even as low down in the organic scale as in the Lepidoptera, the temperature of the body is higher in the male than in the female, accompanied in the case of man by a slower pulse.[21]
Yet he concludes: “On the whole the expenditure of matter and force by the two sexes is probably nearly equal, though effected in very different ways and at different rates.”21
However, as has been observed, the force expended101 by the male in fierce contests with his rivals, in wandering about in search of the female, and in his exertions102 to please her when found, does34 not constitute the only outlay103 of vitality104 to which he is subjected; but in addition to all this, there still remains105 to be considered that force which has been expended in the acquirement of characters which, so far as his own development is concerned, are useless and worse than useless; namely, in birds, combs, wattles, elongated plumes, great wings, etc., and in mammals great horns, tusks, and teeth—appendages which lie outside the line of true development, and, as we have seen, are of no avail except to aid in the processes of reproduction and to assist him in the gratification of his desires; in fact, as these excrescences hinder him in the performance of the ordinary functions of life, they may be regarded in the light of actual hindrances106 to higher development.
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
naturalists
|
|
| n.博物学家( naturalist的名词复数 )；（文学艺术的）自然主义者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
commingling
|
|
| v.混合，掺和，合并( commingle的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
differentiation
|
|
| n.区别，区分 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
sperm
|
|
| n.精子，精液 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
nourishment
|
|
| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
specialized
|
|
| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
peculiar
|
|
| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
accomplishment
|
|
| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
differentiated
|
|
| 区分，区别，辨别( differentiate的过去式和过去分词 )； 区别对待； 表明…间的差别，构成…间差别的特征 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
investigation
|
|
| n.调查，调查研究 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
strictly
|
|
| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
locomotion
|
|
| n.运动，移动 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
destitute
|
|
| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
infinitely
|
|
| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
diversified
|
|
| adj.多样化的，多种经营的v.使多样化，多样化( diversify的过去式和过去分词 )；进入新的商业领域 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
glands
|
|
| n.腺( gland的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
abdominal
|
|
| adj.腹（部）的，下腹的；n.腹肌 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
apparatus
|
|
| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
pollen
|
|
| n.[植]花粉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
bias
|
|
| n.偏见，偏心，偏袒；vt.使有偏见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
altruism
|
|
| n.利他主义，不自私 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
entirely
|
|
| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
underlie
|
|
| v.位于...之下，成为...的基础 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
diverging
|
|
| 分开( diverge的现在分词 )； 偏离； 分歧； 分道扬镳 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
divergences
|
|
| n.分叉( divergence的名词复数 )；分歧；背离；离题 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
prominence
|
|
| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
solely
|
|
| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
28
reiterated
|
|
| 反复地说，重申( reiterate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
eminently
|
|
| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
poultry
|
|
| n.家禽，禽肉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
erect
|
|
| n./v.树立，建立，使竖立；adj.直立的，垂直的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
melodious
|
|
| adj.旋律美妙的，调子优美的，音乐性的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
victorious
|
|
| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
retarded
|
|
| a.智力迟钝的，智力发育迟缓的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
apparently
|
|
| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
discomfiture
|
|
| n.崩溃；大败；挫败；困惑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
aspirants
|
|
| n.有志向或渴望获得…的人( aspirant的名词复数 )v.渴望的，有抱负的，追求名誉或地位的( aspirant的第三人称单数 )；有志向或渴望获得…的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
contestants
|
|
| n.竞争者，参赛者( contestant的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
admiration
|
|
| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
pugnacity
|
|
| n.好斗，好战 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
perseverance
|
|
| n.坚持不懈，不屈不挠 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
notably
|
|
| adv.值得注意地，显著地，尤其地，特别地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
ascend
|
|
| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
indifference
|
|
| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
expend
|
|
| vt.花费，消费，消耗 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
proceeding
|
|
| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
elongated
|
|
| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
plumes
|
|
| 羽毛( plume的名词复数 )； 羽毛饰； 羽毛状物； 升上空中的羽状物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
gaudy
|
|
| adj.华而不实的；俗丽的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
tusks
|
|
| n.（象等动物的）长牙( tusk的名词复数 )；獠牙；尖形物；尖头 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
appendages
|
|
| n.附属物( appendage的名词复数 )；依附的人；附属器官；附属肢体（如臂、腿、尾等） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
ornament
|
|
| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
pugnacious
|
|
| adj.好斗的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
sham
|
|
| n./adj.假冒(的)，虚伪(的) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
inverted
|
|
| adj.反向的，倒转的v.使倒置，使反转( invert的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
descend
|
|
| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
descending
|
|
| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
deliberately
|
|
| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
fatigued
|
|
| adj. 疲乏的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
dominions
|
|
| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
superfluous
|
|
| adj.过多的，过剩的，多余的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
exertion
|
|
| n.尽力，努力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
repugnance
|
|
| n.嫌恶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
domesticated
|
|
| adj.喜欢家庭生活的；（指动物）被驯养了的v.驯化( domesticate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
bestow
|
|
| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
potent
|
|
| adj.强有力的，有权势的；有效力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
subdue
|
|
| vt.制服，使顺从，征服；抑制，克制 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
mere
|
|
| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
allured
|
|
| 诱引，吸引( allure的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
indirectly
|
|
| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
remarkable
|
|
| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
sluggish
|
|
| adj.懒惰的，迟钝的，无精打采的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
accomplished
|
|
| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
exquisite
|
|
| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
ornaments
|
|
| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
derived
|
|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
progenitor
|
|
| n.祖先，先驱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
utterly
|
|
| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
undoubtedly
|
|
| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
gauge
|
|
| v.精确计量；估计；n.标准度量；计量器 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
fully
|
|
| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
conclusively
|
|
| adv.令人信服地，确凿地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
modifications
|
|
| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
affinities
|
|
| n.密切关系( affinity的名词复数 )；亲近；（生性）喜爱；类同 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
legitimate
|
|
| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
progenitors
|
|
| n.祖先( progenitor的名词复数 )；先驱；前辈；原本 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
peculiarities
|
|
| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
conserved
|
|
| v.保护，保藏，保存( conserve的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
bespeak
|
|
| v.预定；预先请求 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
compensated
|
|
| 补偿，报酬( compensate的过去式和过去分词 )； 给（某人）赔偿（或赔款） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
impeded
|
|
| 阻碍，妨碍，阻止( impede的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
lessened
|
|
| 减少的，减弱的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
expenditure
|
|
| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
lasting
|
|
| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
expending
|
|
| v.花费( expend的现在分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
progeny
|
|
| n.后代，子孙；结果 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
perpetuate
|
|
| v.使永存，使永记不忘 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
detrimental
|
|
| adj.损害的，造成伤害的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
expends
|
|
| v.花费( expend的第三人称单数 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
secretions
|
|
| n.分泌（物）( secretion的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
expended
|
|
| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
exertions
|
|
| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
outlay
|
|
| n.费用，经费，支出；v.花费 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
vitality
|
|
| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
hindrances
|
|
| 阻碍者( hindrance的名词复数 )； 障碍物； 受到妨碍的状态 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |