I have before stated that thorough cleanliness is necessary in the mounting of all microscopic1 objects. I may here add that almost every kind of substance used by the microscopist suffers from careless handling. Many leaves with fine hairs are robbed of half their beauty, or the hairs, perhaps, forced into totally different shapes and groups; many insects lose their scales, which constitute their chief value to the microscopist; even the glass itself distinctly shows the marks of the fingers if left uncleaned. Every object must also be thoroughly2 dry, otherwise dampness will arise and become condensed in small drops upon the inner surface of the thin glass cover. This defect is frequently met with in slides which have been mounted quickly; the objects not being thoroughly dry when enclosed in the cell. Many of the cheap slides are thus rendered worthless. Even with every care it is not possible to get rid of this annoyance3 occasionally.
For the purpose of mounting opaque4 objects “dry,” discs were at one time very commonly made use of. These are circular pieces of cork5, leather, or other soft substance, from one-quarter to half inch in diameter, blackened with varnish6 or covered with black paper, on which the object is fixed7 by gum or some other adhesive8 substance. They are usually pierced longitudinally by a strong pin, which serves for the forceps to lay hold of when being placed under the microscope for examination. Sometimes23 objects are affixed9 to both sides of the disc, which is readily turned when under the object-glass. The advantage of this method of mounting is the ease with which the disc may be moved, and so present every part of the object to the eye save that by which it is fastened to the disc. On this account it is often made use of when some particular subject is undergoing investigation10, as a number of specimens12 may be placed upon the discs with very little labour, displaying all the parts. But where exposure to the atmosphere or small particles of dust will injure an object, no advantage which the discs may possess should be considered, and an ordinary covered cell should be employed. Small pill-boxes have been used, to the bottom of which a piece of cork has been glued to afford a ground for the pin or other mode of attachment13; but this is liable to some of the same faults as the disc, and it would be unwise to use these for permanent objects.
Messrs. Smith and Beck have lately invented, and are now making, a beautiful small apparatus14, by means of which the disc supporting the object can be worked with little or no trouble into any position that may prove most convenient, whilst a perforated cylinder15 serves for the reception of the discs when out of use, and fits into a case to protect them from dust. A pair of forceps is made for the express purpose of removing them from the case and placing them in the holder16.
All dry objects, however, which are to be preserved should be mounted on glass slides in one of the cells (described in Chapter I.) best suited to them. Where the object is to be free from pressure, care must be taken that the cell is deep enough to ensure this. When the depth required is but small, it is often sufficient to omit the card, leather, or other circles, and with the “turn-table” before described, by means of a thick varnish and camel-hair pencil, to form a ring of the desired depth; but should the varnish not be of sufficient substance to give such “walls” at once, the first application may be allowed to dry, and a second24 made upon it. A number of these may be prepared at the same time, and laid by for use. When liquids are used (see Chapter IV.), Dr. Carpenter recommends gold-size as a good varnish for the purpose, and this may be used in “dry” mountings also. I have used the asphaltum and india-rubber (mentioned in Chapter I.), and found it to be everything I could wish. The cells, however, must be thoroughly dry, and when they will bear the heat they should be baked for an hour at least in a tolerably cool oven, by which treatment the latter becomes a first-rate medium. All dry objects which will not bear pressure must be firmly fastened to the slide, otherwise the necessary movements very often injure them, by destroying the fine hairs, &c. For this purpose thin varnishes17 are often used, and will serve well enough for large objects, but many smaller ones are lost by adopting this plan, as for a time, which may be deemed long enough to harden the varnish, they exhibit no defect, but in a while a “wall” of the plastic gum gathers around them, which refracts the light, and thus leads the student to false conclusions. In all finer work, where it is necessary to use any method of fixing them to the slide, a solution of common gum, with the addition of a few drops of glycerine (Chapter I.), will be found to serve the purpose perfectly18. It must, however, be carefully filtered through blotting20 paper, otherwise the minute particles in the solution interfere21 with the object, giving the slide a dusty appearance when under the microscope.
When mounting an object in any of these cells, the glass must be thoroughly cleaned, which may be done with a cambric handkerchief, after the washing mentioned in Chapter I. If the object be large, the point of a fine camel-hair pencil should be dipped into the gum solution, and a minute quantity of the liquid deposited in the cell where the object is to be placed, but not to cover a greater surface than the object will totally hide from sight. This drop of gum must be allowed to dry, which will take a few minutes. Breathe then upon it two or three times, holding the slide25 not far from the mouth, which will render the surface adhesive. Then draw a camel-hair pencil through the lips, so as to moisten it slightly (when anything small will adhere to it quite firmly enough), touch the object and place it upon the gum in the desired position. This must be done immediately to ensure perfect stability, otherwise the gum will become at least partially22 dry and only retain the object imperfectly.
When, however, the objects are so minute that it would be impossible to deposit atoms of gum small enough for each one to cover, a different method of proceeding23 must be adopted. In this case a small portion of the same gum solution should be placed upon the slide, and by means of any small instrument—a long needle will serve the purpose very well—spread over the surface which will be required. The quantity thus extended will be very small, but by breathing upon it may be prevented drying whilst being dispersed24. This, like the forementioned, should be then allowed to dry; and whilst the objects are being placed on the prepared surface, breathing upon it as before will restore the power of adherence25.
When gum or other liquid cement has been used to fix the objects to the glass, the thin covers must not be applied26 until the slide has been thoroughly dried, and all fear of dampness arising from the use of the solution done away with. Warmth may be safely applied for the purpose, as objects fastened by this method are seldom, if ever, found to be loosened by it. As objects are met with of every thickness, the cells will be required of different depths. There is no difficulty in accommodating ourselves in this—the deeper cells may be readily cut out of thick leather, card, or other substance preferred (as mentioned in Chapter I.). Cardboard is easily procured28 of almost any thickness; but sometimes it is convenient to find a thinner substance even than this. When thin glass is laid upon a drop of any liquid upon a slide, every one must have observed how readily the liquid spreads betwixt the two: just so when26 any thin varnish is used to surround an object of little substance, excessive care is needed lest the varnish should extend betwixt the cover and slide, and so render it worthless. The slightest wall, however, prevents this from taking place, so that a ring of common paper may be used, and serve a double purpose where the objects require no deeper cell than this forms.
Many objects, however, are of such tenuity—as the leaves of many mosses29, some of the Diatomace?, scales of insects, &c.—that no cell is requisite30 excepting that which is necessarily formed by the medium used to attach the thin glass cover to the slide; and where the slide is covered by the ornamental31 papers mentioned in Chapter I., and pressure does not injure the object, even this is omitted, the thin glass being kept in position by the cover; but slides mounted in this manner are frequently injured by dampness, which soon condenses upon the inner surfaces and interferes32 both with the object and the clearness of its appearance.
The thin glass, then, is to be united to the slide, so as to form a perfect protection from dust, dampness, or other injurious matter, and yet allow a thoroughly distinct view of the object. This is to be done by applying to the glass slide round the object some adhesive substance, and with the forceps placing the thin glass cover (quite dry and clean) upon it. A gentle pressure round the edge will then ensure a perfect adhesion, and with ordinary care there will be little or no danger of breakage. For this purpose gold-size is frequently used. The asphalt and india-rubber varnish also will be found both durable33 and serviceable. Whatever cement may be used, it is well to allow it to become in some measure “fixed” and dried; but where no cell or “wall” is upon the slide, this is quite necessary, otherwise the varnish will be almost certain to extend, as before mentioned, and ruin the object. It may be stated here that gold-size differs greatly in its drying powers, according to its age, mode of preparation, &c. (Chapter IV.)
27 Should any object be enclosed which requires to be kept flat during the drying of the cement, it will be necessary to use some of the contrivances mentioned in Chapter I.
When the slide is thus far advanced, there remains34 the “finishing” only. Should the student, however, have no time to complete his work at once, he may safely leave it at this stage until he has a number of slides which he may finish at the same time. There are different methods of doing this, some of which may be here described.
If ornamental papers are preferred, a small circle must be cut out from the centre a little less than the thin glass which covers the object. Another piece of coloured paper is made of the same size, and a similar circle taken from its centre also, or both may be cut at the same time. The slide is then covered round the edges with paper of any plain colour, so that it may extend about one-eighth of an inch over the glass on every side. The ornamental paper is then pasted on the “object” surface of the glass, so that the circle shows the object as nearly in the centre as possible, and covers the edges of the thin glass. The other coloured paper is then affixed underneath35 with the circle coinciding with that above. And here I may observe, that when this method is used there is no necessity for the edges of the slide to be “ground,” as all danger of scratching, &c., is done away with by the paper cover.
Many now use paper covers, about one and a half inches long, on the upper side of the slide only, with the centre cut out as before, with no other purpose than that of hiding the edge of the thin glass where it is united to the slide.
The method of “finishing,” however, which is mostly used at the present time, is to lay a coating of varnish upon the edge of the thin glass, and extend it some little way on the slide. When a black circle is required, nothing serves the purpose better than the gold-size and lamp-black, or the asphalt and india-rubber varnish, neither of which is liable to chip; but when used for this, the latter should be rather28 thinner, as before advised. Some of these varnishes are preferred of different colours, which may be made by using the different kinds of sealing-wax, as described in Chapter I.; but they are always liable to the defects there mentioned. This circle cannot be made in any other way but by one of those contrivances which have now centred in Shadbolt’s turntable. A very little practice will enable the young student to place his slide so that the circle may be uniform with the edge of the thin glass.
The slide is now complete, except the addition of the name and any other particulars which may be desirable. For this purpose one of the methods described in Chapter I. must be employed.
Amongst the various classes of microscopic objects now receiving general attention, the Diatomace? may be placed in a prominent position. They afford endless opportunities of research, and some very elaborate works have already been issued concerning them. Professor Smith’s may be mentioned as one containing, perhaps, the best illustrations. The young student may wish to know what a diatom is. The “Micrographic Dictionary” gives the following definition:—“A family of confervoid Alg?, of very peculiar36 character, consisting of microscopic brittle37 organisms.” They are now looked upon by almost all of our scientific men as belonging to the vegetable kingdom, though some few still assign them to the animal. They are almost invariably exceedingly small, so that the unaided eye can perceive nothing on a prepared slide of these organisms but minute dust. Each separate portion, which is usually seen when mounted, is termed a “frustule,” or “testule:” this consists of two similar parts, composed of silica, between and sometimes around which is a mass of viscid matter called the “endochrome.” They are found in almost every description of water, according to the variety: some prefer sea-water, others fresh, and many are seen nowhere but in that which is a mixture of both, as the mouths of rivers, &c. Ditches, ponds, cisterns38, and indeed almost every reservoir,29 yield abundance of these forms. They are not, however, confined to “present” life; but, owing to the almost indestructible nature of their siliceous covering, they are found in a fossil state in certain earths in great abundance, and are often termed “fossil Infusoria.” Upon these frustules are generally to be seen lines, or “markings,” of different degrees of minuteness, the delicacy39 of which often serves the purpose of testing the defining power of the object-glasses. Some of the frustules are triangular40, others circular, and, indeed, of almost every conceivable shape, many of them presenting us with exquisitely41 beautiful designs.
The markings, however, are seldom seen well, if at all, until the frustules are properly prepared, the different methods of accomplishing which will be given a little further on.
The collection of the fresh diatoms is so closely connected with their preservation43, that a few notes may be given upon it before we pass on. For this purpose a number of small bottles must be provided, which may be placed in a tin box, with a separate apartment for each, so that all chance of breakage may be done away with. The diatoms are generally of a light brown colour; and where they are observed in the water, the bottle may be so placed, with the mouth closed by the finger, that when the finger is withdrawn44 the water will rush in, carrying the diatoms also. If they are seen upon plants, stones, or any other substance, they may generally be detached and placed in the bottle. When there is a green covering upon the surface of the water, a great quantity of diatoms is usually found amongst it; as also upon the surface of the mud in those ponds where they abound46. In these cases, a broad flat spoon will be found very useful, and one is now made with a covering upon the broader portion of it to protect the enclosed matter from being so readily carried off whilst bringing it to the surface again. Where there is any depth of water, and the spoon will not reach the surface of the mud, the bottle must be united to a long rod, and being30 then carried through the upper portion with the mouth downwards47, no water will be received into it; but on reaching the spot required, the bottle-mouth may be turned up, and thus become filled with what is nearest.
From the stomachs of common fish—as the cod48, sole, haddock, &c.—many specimens of Diatomace? may be obtained, but especially from the crab49, oyster50, mussel, and other shell-fish. Professor Smith states that from these curious receptacles he has taken some with which he has not elsewhere met. To remove them from any of the small shell-fish, it is necessary to take the fish or stomach from the shell, and immerse it in strong hot acid (nitric is the best) until the animal matter is dissolved, when the residue51 must be washed and treated as the ordinary Diatomace? hereinafter described.
Many diatoms are seen best when mounted in a dry state, the minute markings becoming much more indistinct if immersed in liquid or balsam; and for this reason those which are used as test objects are usually mounted dry. Many kinds also are now prepared in this way, as opaque objects to be examined with the lieberkuhn, and are exquisitely beautiful. Others, however, are almost invariably mounted in balsam; but as these will be again referred to in Chapter III., and require the same treatment to fit them for the slide, it will not be out of place to describe the cleaning and preparation of them here. As before stated, there is much matter surrounding them which must be got rid of before the “siliceous covering” can be shown perfectly. As, however, we may first wish to become acquainted in some degree with what we have to do, it is well to take a small piece of talc, and place a few of the diatoms upon it. This may be held over the flame of the spirit-lamp until all the surrounding matter is burnt away, and a tolerable idea may be thus obtained as to the quality of our treasure.
In some cases it is well to use this burning operation alone in mounting specimens of diatoms, when they may be placed in their natural state upon the thin glass, burnt for31 awhile upon the platinum52 plate, hereafter described, and mounted dry or in balsam.
In the preparation and cleaning of Diatomace?, there is little satisfaction unless these operations have been successfully performed, as a very small portion of foreign matter seriously interferes with the object. The mode of preparing them varies even amongst the most experienced. It will be found, therefore, most satisfactory to examine the principal of these separately, although it may be at the risk of some little repetition.
The method which is the most frequently made use of is the following:—Place the “gathering53” containing the Diatomace? in a small glass or porcelain54 vessel55, add strong nitric acid, and, by the aid of Bunsen’s burner or spirit-lamp, boil for some minutes. From time to time a drop of the mixture may be put upon a slide, and examined under the microscope to see if all foreign matter be got rid of. When the valves are clean, the vessel containing them must be filled with water, and the whole left for an hour or two, so that all the diatoms may settle perfectly. The liquid must then be poured off carefully, or drained away by the aid of a syphon, so that none of the diatoms are removed with it. Indeed, it is well to examine the liquid drained off each time with the microscope, as the finer forms are frequently lost in the washings. The vessel must then be refilled with pure water, allowed to settle, and drained as before. This washing must be repeated until a drop being placed upon a slide and evaporated leaves no crystals. When it is desirable to preserve the diatoms in this state before mounting (which process will be described in another place), they may be placed in a small phial with a little distilled56 water.
There are many cases in which the above method will not effect a perfect cleansing57, as certain substances with which the diatoms are frequently mixed are not soluble58 in nitric acid. For this reason the following method is resorted to:—Take a quantity of the matter containing the Diatomace? and wash first with pure water, to get rid of all32 the impurities59 possible. Allow this to settle perfectly and decant60 the water. Add hydrochloric acid gradually, and when all effervescence has subsided61, boil for some minutes by aid of the lamp. When cool and the particles have subsided, decant the hydrochloric and add nitric acid. The boiling must then be repeated until a drop of the liquid when placed under the microscope shows the valves or “frustules” clean. After allowing the diatoms to settle, the acid must be decanted63, and pure water substituted. The washing must be repeated as in the former process until all the remains of crystals or acid are removed, when the specimens may be preserved in small phials as stated above.
Such are the usual modes of treating the Diatomace?, but there are certain cases in which particular methods are required to give anything like perfect results. Persons of great experience combine a variety of treatments, and thus obtain better and more uniform specimens. Perhaps it will be advantageous64 to give the young student the process adopted by one of the most successful preparers of these objects; but I will first state the different methods of mounting the cleaned diatoms dry: how to employ Canada balsam and fluid in their preservation will be elsewhere described.
It was before stated that the diatoms when cleansed65 might be preserved in small phials of distilled water. When required for mounting, shake the phial, and with a thin glass tube or rod take up a drop of the fluid and spread it upon the surface of the slide in the desired position. This must then be allowed to dry gradually, or by the aid of the lamp if necessary, without being shaken or interfered66 with, otherwise uniformity of dispersion will be prevented. When thoroughly dry, a thin ring of one of the adhesive varnishes—gold-size will be found as good as any—may be drawn45 round the diatoms, and allowed to dry in a slight degree. The slide and thin glass cover should then be warmed and the latter gently pressed upon the ring of varnish until the adhesion all round is complete.
33 As some of the diatoms require object-glasses of extremely high power, and, consequently, short focus, to show them, they must be as close to the outer surface of the cover as possible. For this reason they are sometimes placed upon the under side of the thin glass, as follows. Clean the surfaces of the slide and cover, and with the rod or pipe place the liquid containing the diatoms upon the thin glass, and dry as before. Trace the ring to receive the cover upon the slide, and when almost dry, warm both and proceed as above. Whichever of these methods is employed, the outer ring of coloured varnish may be applied as elsewhere described and the slide finished.
The diatoms are also sometimes mounted betwixt two thin glasses, as described in Chapter I., so that the light by which they are examined may receive as little interference as possible, and that an achromatic condenser67 may be brought into focus under the slide.
Of the various modes of cleaning and mounting the Diatomace?, I believe that the following may be safely recommended as affording results of the very best quality. My friend, Mr. T. G. Rylands, gave it to me as that which he prefers, and I can safely say that his numerous slides are at least equal to any I have ever seen. I will give it just as I received it from him, though there may be some little repetition of what has been said elsewhere, as he does not appropriate any part of it as his own. He says:—In this branch of mounting, general rules alone can be laid down, because the gatherings68 may contain iron, lime, fine silt69, or vegetable matter under conditions for special treatment, and consequently the first step should be to experiment on various kinds.
In gathering diatoms much labour is saved by judgment70 and care; hence it is desirable to get acquainted with them in their growing condition, so that when recognised upon the sands or other spots they may be carefully removed by the aid of the spoon or small tin scoop71 before described. When growing upon alg? or other plants, the plants and diatoms34 together may be carried home, in which case they must be simply drained and not washed or pressed, in order that the diatoms be not lost. As it is always desirable to examine the gathering on the ground, a “Gairdner’s hand microscope” with powers from 80 to 200 diameters will be found very useful. The best gatherings are those which represent one species abundantly. Those which are mixed may be rejected, unless they are seen to contain something valuable or important, as the object should be not so much to supply microscopical72 curiosities as to collect material which is available for the study of nature.
The gathering when carried home should always be carefully examined before anything is done with it; not only on account of the additional information thus acquired, but also because it often happens that a specimen11 should be mounted in fluid (see Chapter IV.) in the condition in which it is gathered, as well as cleaned and mounted in balsam (Chapter III.) and dry.
Where the gathering is taken from sand, the whole may be shaken up in water as a preliminary operation, when much of the sand will be separated by its own weight. The lime test, however, should be applied, viz.—a small portion of hydrochloric acid, and if there be effervescence it must be dissolved out by this means. From Alg? and other weeds diatoms may be detached by agitating73 the whole together in a weak solution of nitric acid—about one of pure acid to twenty or thirty of water, as it must be sufficiently74 weak to free the diatoms without destroying the matter to which they adhere. The diatoms may then be separated by sifting75 through coarse muslin, which will retain the Alg?, &c. The process of cleaning will vary according to circumstances. Some gatherings require to be boiled only a few minutes in nitric acid; but the more general plan where they are mixed with organic or other foreign matter, is to boil them in pure sulphuric acid until they cease to grow darker in colour (usually from a half to one minute), and then to add, drop by drop to avoid explosions,35 a cold saturated76 solution of chlorate of potash until the colour is discharged, or, in case the colour does not disappear, the quantity of the solution used is at least equal to that of the acid. This operation is best performed in a wide-mouthed ordinary beaker glass,B a test-tube being too narrow. The mixture whilst boiling should be poured into thirty times its bulk of cold water, and the whole allowed to subside62. The fluid must then be carefully decanted and the vessel re-supplied once or twice with pure water, so as to get rid of all the acid. The gathering may then be transferred to a small boiling glass or test-tube, and—the water being carefully decanted—boiled in the smallest available quantity of nitric acid, and washed as before. This last process has been found necessary from the frequent appearance of minute crystals, which cannot otherwise be readily disposed of without the loss of a considerable proportion of diatoms.
B These glasses are round, about six inches high, and usually contain about eight ounces. They are rather wider at the bottom, tapering77 gradually to the top, and may be generally procured at the chemists, &c.
I may here mention that the washing glasses used by Mr. Rylands are stoppered conical bottles varying in capacity from two ounces to one quart; the conical form being employed to prevent the adherence of anything to the side; they are “stoppered” to render them available in the shaking process about to be described.
The gathering, freed from acid, is now put into two inches depth of water, shaken vigorously for a minute or two, and allowed to subside for half an hour, after which the turbid78 fluid must be carefully decanted. This operation must be repeated until all the matter is removed which will not settle in half an hour. The fluid removed should be examined by a drop being put upon a slide, as in some cases very light diatoms have been found to come off almost pure in one or more of these earlier washings. The quantity of water and time of subsidence given may be taken36 generally, but may require to be modified according to circumstances and the judgment of the operator. By the repetition and variation of this process—the shaking being the most important part—the gathering, if a pure one, will be sufficiently clean. If, however, it contains a variety of species and forms, it may require to be divided into different densities79.
In some cases, however, it is best to divide the gathering as a preliminary operation, which may be done by agitating it in a quantity of water and decanting80 what does not readily subside. The heavier and the lighter81 portions are then to be treated as two separate boilings. But when the cleansing has been carried to the above stage and this division is required, the plan must be somewhat as follows:—The gathering must be shaken in a test-tube with six inches of water, and then allowed to subside until one inch at the top remains pure. About three inches are then to be carefully withdrawn by a pipette, when the tube may be filled up and the operation repeated. The three lower inches also may then be decanted and examined. The gathering is thus divided into three portions, viz.—that which was withdrawn by the pipette, that which remained floating in the lower three inches of water in the tube, and that which had settled at the bottom. An examination of these will inform the operator how to obtain that particular density82 of gathering which he desires, and how far it is worth while to refine this process of elutriation; for in cases of necessity any one, or all three, of these densities may be operated upon in the same way to separate a particular diatom.
As occasional aids, it may be remarked, that in some cases liquor ammoni? may be used in place of water, as it often separates fine dirt, which is not otherwise easily got rid of. Some fossil deposits require to be treated with a boiling solution of carbonate of soda83 to disintegrate84 them; but this operation requires great care, lest the alkali should destroy the diatoms. Vegetable silicates85 also sometimes require to37 be removed by a solution of carbonate of soda; but as the frustules of the diatoms themselves are but vegetable silica, even more care is required in this case. It may be well to mention, that some diatoms are so imperfectly siliceous that they will not bear boiling in acid at all. Some of these may be allowed to stand in cold nitric acid some time, whilst others of a smaller and more delicate character should, when possible, be treated with distilled water alone.
We will now consider the mode of mounting the prepared diatoms, which, if used dry (as described in this chapter), should be carefully washed two or three times with the purest distilled water. In this branch, as in every other, each collector gives preference to that method in which he is an adept86. Thus the diatoms may be placed on the under side of the cover, to be as near to the object-glass as possible, or upon the slide itself; and each plan has its advocates. Whichsoever of these is used, nothing seems more simple to the novice87 than a tolerably equal dispersion of the objects upon the slide or cover; but this is by no means so readily accomplished88, consequently I give Mr. Rylands’ method, as his slides are perfect in this respect also. He always places the diatoms upon the thin glass cover. It is not sufficient, as is frequently thought, to take a drop of liquid containing the cleansed material and spread it upon the cover or slide, as without some additional precaution that uniform and regular distribution of the specimens is not obtained which is desirable. In order to effect this, let a drop of the cleansed gathering be diluted90 sufficiently for the purpose—how much must be determined91 in each case by experiment—and let the covers to be mounted be cleaned and laid upon the brass92 plate. (See Chapter I.) By means of a glass tube, about one-twelfth of an inch in diameter, stopped by the wetted finger at the upper end, take up as much of the diluted material as will form a moderately convex drop extending over the whole cover. When all the covers required are thus prepared,38 apply a lamp below the brass plate, and raise the temperature to a point just short of boiling. By this means the covers will be dried in a few minutes, and the specimens equally distributed over the whole area. The spread of the fluid upon the covers is facilitated by breathing upon them; and, to insure uniformity, care must be taken to avoid shaking them whilst drying. The best plan is to mount at least half a dozen at once.
Before mounting, Mr. Rylands always burns the diatoms upon the glass at a dull red heat, whether they are used with balsam or dry. This burning, he says, is not only an additional cleaning process, but it effectually fixes the diatoms, and prevents them floating out if mounted with balsam. The thinnest covers may be burnt without damage if they are placed upon a small piece of platinum foil of the size required, which should be about one-hundredth of an inch thick, perfectly flat, and having three of its edges slightly bent93 over, so as to prevent its warping94 with the heat. The small flame of a spirit-lamp, or, where there is gas, a Bunsen’s burner, may be employed. The cover should be shaded from direct daylight, that the action of the flame may be observed more perfectly. Care must then be taken to raise the temperature only to the dull red heat before mentioned. The cover will then be in a fit state for mounting as required.
It has been stated in another place that it is assumed the operator is not mounting diatoms simply as microscopic objects, but as instructive specimens. It is not, therefore, sufficient to take a single slide as all that is required, but to have the same diatom prepared in as many ways as possible. The following are the principal:—
1. Mounted crude in fluid (see Chapter IV.).
2. Burnt crude upon the cover, and mounted dry or in balsam (as before mentioned).
3. Mounted dry or in balsam (see Chapter III.), after the cleansing process already described.
I will here give Mr. Rylands’ method of mounting them39 dry, the fluid and balsam preparations being noticed in their respective chapters. The slide with the ring of asphalt, or black varnish, should have been prepared some weeks previously95, in order to allow it to dry thoroughly. When required, it must be held over the spirit-lamp or Bunsen’s burner until the ring of varnish is softened96. The burnt cover, having been heated at the same time, must then be taken in the forceps and pressed upon the softened varnish until it adheres all round. When cold, an outer ring of asphalt completes the slide.
Such is the method which my friend Mr. T. G. Rylands employs in the preparation of diatoms for the microscope. I have said enough concerning his results. It is to be feared, however, that to some these several modes of operation may appear lengthy97 and complicated; but if read carefully, and the experiments tried, they will be found simple enough in practice, and to occupy much less time than an intelligible98 description would lead the novice to believe necessary.
One of the most fertile as well as the most curious magazines of Diatomace? is guano. The siliceous forms contained therein have been devoured99 by sea-birds and passed through the stomach uninjured, and after lying for ages may be cleaned and classified. Many of these are not elsewhere met with, so that the student who is desirous to enter into the study of Diatomace? must be instructed as to the best mode of obtaining them from this source. The particulars to be observed so closely resemble those before mentioned in the treatment of the ordinary diatoms, that it will be sufficiently explicit100 to give the outlines of the process. The guano must be first washed in pure water, allowed to subside perfectly, and the liquid then poured off. This must be repeated until the top fluid is clear, and care taken not to decant the liquid until perfect subsidence has taken place. The deposit must then be treated with hydrochloric acid with a gentle heat for an hour or two, adding a little fresh acid at intervals101 as long as it excites any effervescence40 After this nitric acid must be substituted for the hydrochloric, and the heat kept up to almost boiling-point for another hour at least, adding a little fresh acid as before. When this ceases to act, the deposit must be allowed to settle perfectly and the acid poured off. All traces of the acid must now be washed away with pure water, when the remains will be Diatomace?, the sand contained in the guano, and a few other forms. Some of these may be mounted dry, as before mentioned, but the greater portion should be put up in Canada balsam as described in Chapter III.
Such is the ordinary method for the treatment of guano; but Mr. Rylands’ mode of proceeding with ordinary Diatomace? (before given) will be found equally successful with these deposits.
The fossil Infusoria (as they were formerly102 called) are now termed Diatomace?, and are found in various parts of the world—“Bermuda earth,” “Berg-mehl” from Norway, deposit from Mourne Mountain in Ireland, &c. They are found in immense quantities, and afford the microscopist innumerable objects. The same treatment as that usually employed for the Diatomace? must be followed with these deposits, but as they are sometimes obtained in hard masses, disintegration103 is first necessary. To effect this, they are usually boiled for a short time in diluted liquor potass?, which will soon cause the mass to fall into a mud-like deposit. Water must then be immediately added, in order that all further action of the liquor potass? may be stopped, otherwise the objects searched for will be dissolved. For this reason it is necessary to understand what substance is being dealt with, because some deposits are much finer and acted upon more readily than others.
In mounting these objects, some are so delicate that they are almost invisible when balsam is used with them; they are therefore usually mounted dry. Others, however, are much coarser, and may be mounted in balsam like the Diatomace? mentioned in Chapter III.
41 The common Infusoria cannot be mounted dry with any great success, though a few may be placed upon the glass slide and allowed to dry naturally, when their characters will be very well shown. To obtain anything like a natural appearance, they must be put up in fluid as in Chapter IV.
Next to the Diatomace?, no class of microscopic objects has been more looked into of late than the Foraminifera. These animals are almost all marine104, having a jelly-like body enclosed in one or more chambers105 of shell generally composed of carbonate of lime. The shells are made with minute orifices, through which the pseudopodia (false feet) are extended by which the animal is enabled to lay hold of anything and draw itself along. From the possession of these orifices they derive106 their name, as foramen means a door or opening. They have been found in every depth of sea hitherto sounded, each depth being abundant in certain species; the lowest beds containing the greatest number of specimens, though with less variation of kinds. In chalk they are found in a fossil state, and may readily be shown (see Chapter III.); in limestone107 and other hard stones they are abundant, and some mountains are composed principally of these shells.
The methods of obtaining Foraminifera are various. Many may be found upon seaweeds, which should always be examined as soon as possible after gathering. They are found in masses upon some coasts where the waves have carried and left them; but they are to be found the most abundantly in sand or mud dredged from the bottom of the sea. They must, however, be cleansed and separated from the mass of impurity108 with which they are usually mixed. This may be done in various ways, according to the nature of the accompanying matter. If sand alone, as is frequently the case, the whole mass must be thoroughly dried, and then stirred up in clean water. The sand will soon subside by its own weight, but the chambers of the Foraminifera, being filled with air, will float upon the surface, and may be skimmed off. There is, however, one objection to this mode of proceeding—some42 of these objects are so minute, the chambers containing comparatively so small a quantity of air, that they sink and are cast away with the refuse sand. On this account it is preferable to take the trouble of searching certain soundings under the microscope, using the camel-hair pencil, or some other contrivance before mentioned, to extract those objects which are required. To clean the Foraminifera, Professor Williamson advises to transfer the specimens to an evaporating dish containing a weak solution of caustic109 potash. This must be boiled for “some moments,” when the organic matter will be entirely110 dissolved, and the calcareous shells left free from impurity. They must now be well washed in water, so that all alkaline matter may be entirely got rid of.
If the specimens are in mud, we must proceed in a different way:—Stir up the whole mass in water, and allow it to stand until the heavier portion has sunk to the bottom; the water may then be poured off and examined to see if there are any objects contained in it. This process must be repeated until the water comes off quite clear, when (if the search is for Foraminifera only) the solution of caustic potash may be used as before mentioned. However the soundings, &c., are cleaned, it is necessary to assort them under the microscope with the camel-hair pencil or other contrivance, as it is impossible to obtain them fit for mounting without undergoing this process.
The sea soundings taken by order of Government are drawn from the bottom in a kind of apparatus ingeniously made for the purpose, and the sand, mud, &c., are brought up in their original state. Common soundings, however, are taken by lowering a heavy piece of lead coated with tallow, which consequently brings up a small portion of the matter from the bottom. Mr. George Mosley, the late Secretary of the Manchester Microscopic Society, obtained numbers of the “scrapings” from the sounding leads. To make any use of these it is, of course, necessary to free them from all traces of the tallow. Mr. Dancer places the43 sounding in a basin and pours boiling water upon it, which causes the melted grease to rise to the surface. When cold, this may be removed, and the water carefully decanted. The operation may be repeated until no grease appears, when the water may be withdrawn and liquor ammoni? used, which will form a soapy solution with any remaining grease. This must be treated with hot water for the final washing. Care must be taken lest the finer forms be carried away in decanting the washing liquid. Should it be wished to make certain as to this point, each washing should be examined under the microscope. In some cases the process of Mr. Dancer will prove sufficient. Mr. Dale, however, gives a method of accomplishing the same result, which is much more readily completed; and as the results cannot be found fault with, I will here give it in full:—It is now well known that one of the products obtained from the naphtha of coal-tar is a volatile111, oily substance, termed benzole (or, by French chemists, benzine), whose boiling-point, when pure, is about 180° Fahrenheit112, which is a perfect solvent113 for fatty substances. In a capsule, previously warmed on a sand-bath, Mr. Dale mixes with the tallow soundings benzole, whose boiling-point may be about 200°, until sufficiently diluted so as to run freely, pressing the lumps with a glass rod until thoroughly mingled114; the solution and its contents are then poured into a paper filter, placed in a glass funnel115; the capsule is again washed with benzole, until the whole of the gritty particles are removed into the filter. A washing-bottle is then supplied with benzole, and the contents of the filter washed to the bottom until that liquid passes off pure, which may be tested by placing a drop from the point of the funnel on a warm slip of glass or bright platinum, when, if pure, the benzole will evaporate without residue or tarnish116; if grease be present, the washings must be continued until they are free from it. After rinsing117 through weak acid, or alcohol, for final purification, the calcareous forms will be ready for mounting.
44 The filter and its contents may be left to dry spontaneously, when the latter can be examined by the microscope. Should time be an object, rapid drying may be effected by any of the usual methods; one of which, recommended by Mr. Dale, is to blow a stream of hot air through a glass tube held in the flame of a Bunsen’s burner. The lower the boiling-point of the benzole, the more readily can the specimens be freed from it. A commoner quality may be used, but it is more difficult to dry afterwards.
Pure benzole being costly118, this may appear an expensive process; but, with the exception of a trifling119 loss by evaporation120, the whole may be recovered by simple distillation121. The mixture of tallow and benzole being placed in a retort in a hot-water, a steam, or a sand bath, the benzole will pass into the receiver, and the tallow or other impurities will remain in the retort. When the whole of the benzole has distilled over, which is ascertained122 by its ceasing to drop from the condenser, the heat is withdrawn and the retort allowed to cool before the addition of fresh material. Half a dozen to a dozen filters, each with its specimen, can be in process at the same time; and the distillation of the recovered benzole progresses as quickly as the filtration, which was practically proved on the occasion named. Great caution in the use of benzole is to be taken in the approach of lights to the inflammable vapour.
After the Foraminifera and calcareous forms have been removed, the residue may be treated with acids and levigation in the usual manner, to obtain siliceous forms and discs, if there are any present; but to facilitate their deposition123, and to avoid the loss of any minute atoms suspended in the washings, I would suggest the use of filtration. The conical filter is unsuitable, as the particles would spread over too great a surface of paper; but glass tubes open at both ends (such as broken test-tubes) will be found to answer, the broad end covered with filtering paper, and over that a slip of muslin tied on with a thread to facilitate the passage of the water and prevent the risk of45 breaking the paper. Suspend the tube over a suitable vessel through a hole cut in thin wood or cardboard, pour in the washings which can be thus filtered and then dried. The cloth must be carefully removed, the paper cut round the edges of the tube, and the diatoms on the paper disc may be removed by a camel-hair pencil or otherwise, ready for mounting. Thus many objects may be preserved which would be either washed away or only be obtained by a more tedious process.
Such is Mr. Dale’s method of cleaning the soundings from the tallow, and as it thoroughly accomplishes its end, and is alike effective and not injurious to Foraminifera and diatoms, it may be safely recommended. The weak solution of caustic potash before advised for Foraminifera, must not be used where it is desired to preserve the diatoms, as they would certainly be injured, or destroyed altogether, if this agent were employed.
In fixing the Foraminifera upon the slide, no better plan can be followed than the “dry cells” and gum recommended in the early parts of this chapter. Owing to their thickness and composition, most of them are opaque objects only; but they are exquisitely beautiful, and require no particular care, except in allowing the cell, &c., to be perfectly dry, when the cover is placed upon it, or the damp will certainly become condensed upon the inner side, and the examination seriously interfered with.
Many of the Foraminifera require cutting into sections if it is wished to examine the internal structure, &c.,—“decalcifying” is also desirable in some cases;—both of these processes will be found described at length in the chapter on Sections and Dissection124.
When more than one specimen of some particular shell is obtained, it is better to place them upon the slide in different positions, so as to show as much of the structure as possible. I will conclude this subject by quoting a passage from T. Rymer Jones:—“It is, therefore, by no means sufficient to treat these shells as ordinary objects by simply46 laying them on a glass slide, so as to see them only from one or two points of view; they must be carefully examined in every direction, for such is the diversity of form that nothing short of this will be at all satisfactory. For this purpose, they should be attached to the point of a fine needle, so that they may be turned in any direction, and examined by reflected light condensed upon them by means of a lens or side reflector. In many of the thick-shelled species it will be necessary to grind them down on a hone [see Chapter V.] before the number and arrangement of the internal chambers is discernible; and in order to investigate satisfactorily the minuti? of their structure, a variety of sections, made in various ways, is indispensable.”
Plants afford an almost inexhaustible treasury125 for the microscope, and many of them show their beauties best when mounted dry. When any of these also are to be mounted, care must be taken that they are thoroughly dry, otherwise the damp will certainly arise in the cell, and injure the object; and it may be here mentioned that long after a leaf has every appearance of dryness, the interior is still damp, and no way can be recommended of getting rid of this by any quicker process than that effected by keeping them in a warm room, as many leaves, &c., are utterly126 spoiled by using a hot iron or other contrivance. The safest way is to press them gently betwixt blotting-paper, which may be removed and dried at short intervals; and though this may appear a tedious operation, it is a safe one.
On the surface of the leaves, hairs and scales of various and very beautiful forms are found, most of which display their beauties best when removed from the leaf, and used with the polarizer. These will be noticed in another place; but a portion of the leaf should always be prepared in its natural form, to show the arrangement of the hair or scales upon it; which must almost invariably be mounted dry when used for this purpose. Many of them require very delicate handling. The epidermis127, or, as it is by some termed, the cuticle128, is the outer skin which lies upon the surface of the leaves and47 other parts of most plants. This is composed of cells closely connected, often bearing the appearance of a rude network. In many plants, by scraping up the surface of the leaf, a thin coating is detached, which may be torn off by taking hold of it with the forceps. The piece may then be washed and floated upon a glass slide, where, on drying, it will be firmly fixed, and may usually be mounted dry. Amongst the most beautiful and easily prepared of these may be mentioned the petal129 of the geranium, the cells of which are well defined and amongst the most interesting.
Closely connected with the leaves are the ANTHERS and POLLEN130, of which a great number are beautiful and interesting subjects for the microscopist.
The mallow tribe will furnish some exquisite42 objects, bearing the appearance of masses of costly jewels. These are usually dried with pressure, but the natural form may be more accurately131 preserved by allowing them to dry as they are taken from the flower, with no interference except thoroughly protecting them from all dust. Sometimes the anther is divided, so that the cell required to receive them may be of as little depth as possible. The common mallow is a beautiful object, but I think the lavatera is a better, as it shows the pollen chambers well, when dried unpressed. The pollen is often set alone, and is well worth the trouble, as it then admits of more close examination. Often it is convenient to have the anther and pollen as seen in nature on one slide, and the pollen alone upon another. The former should be taken from the flowers before their full development is attained132, as if overgrown they lose much of their beauty. Some pollens133 are naturally so dark that it is necessary to mount them in Canada balsam or fluid, as described in other places; but they are better mounted dry when they are not too opaque.
Here, too, we may also mention the SEEDS of many plants as most interesting, and some of them very beautiful, objects, requiring for the greater part but a low power to show them. Most of these are to be mounted dry, as opaque48 objects, in cells suited to them, but some are best seen in balsam, and will be mentioned in Chapter III.
The Corallines, many of which are found on almost every coast, afford some very valuable objects for the microscope. They must be well washed when first procured, to get rid of all the salts in the sea-water, dried and mounted in cells deep enough to protect them from all danger of pressure, as some of them are exceedingly fragile. The white ivory appearance which some of them present is given to them by an even covering of carbonate of lime; and should it be desired to examine the structure of these more closely, it may be accomplished by keeping them for some time in vinegar or dilute89 muriatic acid, which will remove the lime and allow of the substance being sliced in the same way as other Alg?. (“Micrographic Dictionary,” p. 183.)
The Scales of Insects.—The fine dust upon the wings of moths134 and butterflies, which is so readily removed when handled carelessly, is what is generally called scales. To these the wing owes the magnificent colours which so often are seen upon it; every particle being what may be termed a distinct flat feather. How these are placed (somewhat like tiles upon a roof) may be easily seen in the wing of any butterfly, a few being removed to aid the investigation. The form of them is usually that of the “battledore” with which the common game is played, but the handle or base of the scale is often short, and the broad part varies in proportionate length and breadth in different specimens. The markings upon these also vary, some being mostly composed of lines running from the base to the apex135, others reminding us of network—bead-like spots only are seen in some—indeed, almost endless changes are found amongst them. These scales are not confined to butterflies and moths, nor indeed to the wings of insects. The different gnats136 supply some most beautiful specimens, not only from the wings, but also from the proboscis137, &c.; whilst from still more minute insects, as the podura, scales are taken which were at one time esteemed138 as a most delicate test.49 The gorgeous colours which the diamond beetles139 also show when under the microscope are produced by light reflected from minute scales with which the insects are covered.
In mounting these objects for the microscope it is well to have the part of the insect from which the scales are usually taken as a separate slide, so that the natural arrangement of them may be seen. This is easily accomplished with the wings of butterflies, gnats, &c.; as they require no extraordinary care. In mounting the scales they may be placed upon slides, by passing the wings over the surface, or by gently scraping the wing upon the slide, when they must be covered with the thin glass. Of course, the extreme tenuity of these objects does away with the necessity of any cell excepting that formed by the gold-size or other cement used to attach the cover. The scales of the podura should be placed upon the slide in a somewhat different manner. This insect is without wings, and is no longer than the common flea140. It is often found amongst the sawdust in wine-cellars, continually leaping about by the aid of its tail, which is bent underneath its body. Dr. Carpenter says:—“Podur? may be obtained by sprinkling a little oatmeal on a piece of black paper near their haunts; and after leaving it there for a few hours, removing it carefully to a large glazed141 basin, so that, when they leap from the paper (as they will when brought to the light), they may fall into the basin, and may thus separate themselves from the meal. The best way of obtaining their scales, is to confine several of them together beneath a wine glass inverted142 upon a piece of fine smooth paper; for the scales will become detached by their leaps against the glass, and will fall upon the paper.” These scales are removed to the slide, and mounted as those from the gnats, &c. When the podura has been caught without the aid of the meal, it may be placed upon the slide, under a test-tube, or by any other mode of confinement143, and thus save the trouble of transfer from the paper before mentioned. Another method is to seize the insect by the leg with the forceps and drag it across50 the slide, when a sufficient quantity of scales will probably be left upon it.
These scales are usually mounted “dry;” but Hogg recommends the use of Canada balsam (Chapter III.) as rendering144 their structure more definite when illuminated145 with Wenham’s parabolic reflector. Some advise other methods, which will be mentioned in Chapter IV. As most insects when undissected are mounted in Canada balsam, the different modes of treatment which they require will be stated in another place.
In mounting blood of any kind to show the corpuscles, or, as they are often called, globules, which are round or oval discs, it is but necessary to cover the slide on the spot required with a coating as thin as possible and allow it to dry before covering with the thin glass. There is a slight contraction146 in the globules when dried, but not enough to injure them for the microscope. The shape of these varies in different classes of animals, but the size varies much more, some being many times as large as others.—Some of the larv? skins are beautiful objects; but, like many sections of animal and other fragile matter, are difficult to extend upon the slide. This difficulty is easily overcome by floating the thin object in clear water, immersing the slide and when the object is evenly spread gently lifting it. Allow it then to dry by slightly raising one end of the slide to aid the drainage, and cover with the thin glass as other objects. The tails and fins147 of many small fish may be mounted in a similar manner, and are well worth the trouble.
A few objects which are best shown by mounting dry may be here mentioned as a slight guide to the beginner, though some of them have been before noticed;—many of the Foraminifera as elsewhere described. Some crystals are soluble in almost any fluid or balsam, and should be mounted dry; a few, however, deliquesce or effloresce, which renders them worthless as microscopic objects.
The wings of butterflies and gnats, as before noticed, afford many specimens wherewith to supply the cabinet51 of the young student. A great variety also may be found amongst the ferns; indeed, these alone will afford the student occupation for a long time. On the under-side of the leaves are the reservoirs for the “spores148,” which in many instances somewhat resemble green velvet149, and are arranged in stripes, round masses, and other forms. The spores are usually covered with a thin skin termed the indusium, which is curiously150 marked in some specimens, often very like pollen-grains. The manner in which these spores with all their accompaniments are arranged, their changes and developments afford almost endless subjects for study; different ferns presenting us with many variations in this respect totally invisible without the aid of the microscope. The hymenophyllums (of which two only belong to England) are particularly interesting, and the structure of the leaves when dried makes them beautiful objects, often requiring no balsam to aid their transparency. Portions of the fronds151 of ferns should be mounted as opaque objects, after having been dried between blotting paper, when they are not injured by pressure; but care must be taken to gather them at the right time, as they do not show their beauty before they are ripe, and if over-ripe the arrangement of the spores, &c., is altered. The spores may be mounted as separate objects in the same manner as pollen, before-mentioned, and are exquisitely beautiful when viewed with a tolerably high power. The number of foreign ferns now cultivated in this country has greatly widened the field for research in this direction; and it may also be mentioned that the under-sides of many are found to be covered with “scales” of very beautiful forms. A small piece of the frond152 of one of these may be mounted in its natural state, but the removal of the “scales” for examination by polarized light will be described in another place. The mosses also are quite a little world, requiring but a low power to show their beauties. The leaves are of various forms, some of which resemble beautiful net-work; the “urns” or reservoirs for the spores, however, are perhaps52 the most interesting parts of these objects, as also of the “liverworts” which are closely allied153 to the mosses. These “urns” are generally covered by lids, which fall off when the fruit is ripe. At this period they are well fitted for the microscope. The common screw-moss may be found in great abundance, and shows this denudation154 of the spores very perfectly. Many of these may be easily dried without much injury, but they should also be examined in their natural state.
The student should not omit from his cabinet a leaf of the nettle155 and the allied foreign species, the mystery of which the microscope will make plain. The hairs or stings may also be removed, and viewed with a higher power than when on the leaf, being so transparent156 as to require no balsam or other preservative157.
There are few more interesting objects than the raphides or plant-crystals. These are far from being rare, but in some plants they are very minute, and consequently require care in the mounting, as well as a high magnifying power to render them visible; in others they are so large that about twenty-five of them placed point to point would reach one inch. Some of these crystals are long and comparatively very thin, which suggested the name (raphis, a needle); others are star-like, with long and slender rays; while others again are of a somewhat similar form, each ray being solid and short. If the stem of rhubarb, or almost any of the hyacinth tribe, be bruised158, so that the “juice” may flow upon the slide, in all probability some of these crystals will be found in the fluid. To obtain them clean, they must be freed from all vegetable matter by maceration159. After this they must be thoroughly washed and mounted “dry.” They are also good polarizing objects, giving brilliant colours; but when used for this purpose they must be mounted as described in Chapter III. A few plants which contain them may be mentioned here. The Cactace? are very prolific160; the orchids161, geraniums, tulips, and the outer coating of the onion, furnish the more unusual forms.
53 The Fungi162 are generally looked upon as a very difficult class of objects to deal with, but amongst them some of the most available may be found. The forms of many are very beautiful, but are so minute as to require a high magnifying power to show them. The mould which forms on many substances is a fungus163, and in some cases may be dried and preserved in its natural state. A friend of mine brought me a rose-bush completely covered with a white blight164. This was found to be a fungus, which required a high magnifying power to show it. Being a very interesting object, it was desirable to preserve it, and this was perfectly effected without injury to the form by simply drying the leaf in a room usually occupied. Amongst the fungi are many objects well worth looking for, one of which is the Diach?a elegans. This, the only species, says the “Micrographic Dictionary,” is found in England upon the living leaves of the lily-of-the-valley, &c. These little plants grow in masses, reminding one of mould, to a height of a quarter of an inch, and each “stem” is covered with a sheath, in shape somewhat like an elongated165 thimble. When ripe the sheath falls off and reveals the same shaped column, made up of beautifully fine net-work, with the spores lying here and there. This dries well, and is a good object for the middle powers. Amongst the fungi the blights166 of wheat and of other articles of food may be included. Many of them may be mounted “dry;” others, however, cannot be well preserved except in liquids, and will be referred to in Chapter IV. Amongst the zoophytes and sea-mats, commonly called “sea-weeds,” may be found many very interesting objects to be mounted “dry.” When this mode of preservation is used, it is necessary that all the sea-salt be thoroughly washed from them. As they are, however, most frequently mounted in balsam or liquid, they will be more fully19 noticed in other places.
The scales of fishes are generally mounted “dry” when used as ordinary objects; but for polarized light, balsam or liquid must be used, as noticed in Chapter III. The variety54 and beauty of these are quite surprising to the novice. It is also very interesting to procure27 the skin of the fish when possible, and mount it on a separate slide to show how the scales are arranged. The sole is one of the most unusual forms, the projecting end of each scale being covered with spines168, which radiate from a common centre, while those at the extremity169 are carried out somewhat resembling the rays of a star. One of the skates has a spine167 projecting from the centre of each scale, which is a very curious opaque object, especially when the skin is mounted in the manner described. The perch170, roach, minnow, and others of the common fishes give the student good objects for his cabinet, and may be procured without difficulty.
Insects which are very transparent, or have the “metallic lustre” with which any medium would interfere, are mounted “dry.” The diamond-beetle, before mentioned, is a splendid example of this; the back is generally used, but the legs, showing the curious feet, are very interesting objects. Indeed, amongst the legs and feet of insects there is a wide field of interest. When they are of a “horny” nature, it is best to dry them in any form preferred, but to use no pressure; when, however, they are wanted flat, so as to show the feet, &c., extended, they must be dried with a gentle pressure betwixt blotting-paper if possible. But this will be treated more fully in Chapter III.
The eyes of insects are sometimes allowed to dry in their natural shape, and mounted as opaque objects; but generally they are used as transparencies in balsam or liquid, so the description of the treatment which they require will be deferred171 to Chapter III.
Hairs, when not too dark, are sometimes transparent enough when mounted dry, but are usually mounted in balsam. These also will be more fully noticed in another place.
These are a few of the objects which are often mounted dry, but some of them should be shown in balsam or liquid also, and there is much difference of opinion as to the best55 way of preserving others. This, however, is explained by the transparency which the balsam gives interfering172 with one property of the object and yet developing another which would have remained invisible if preserved dry. The only method of overcoming this difficulty is to keep the object mounted in both ways, which is comparatively little trouble.
I may here mention that many prefer the lieberkuhn for the illumination of opaque objects; and a good background is gained by putting upon the under side of the slide, immediately beneath the object, a spot of black varnish, which does not interfere materially with the light.
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microscopic
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| adj.微小的，细微的，极小的，显微的 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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annoyance
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| n.恼怒，生气，烦恼 | |
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opaque
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| adj.不透光的；不反光的，不传导的；晦涩的 | |
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cork
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varnish
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| n.清漆；v.上清漆；粉饰 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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adhesive
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| n.粘合剂；adj.可粘着的，粘性的 | |
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affixed
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| adj.[医]附着的，附着的v.附加( affix的过去式和过去分词 )；粘贴；加以；盖（印章） | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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cylinder
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| n.圆筒，柱(面)，汽缸 | |
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16
holder
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| n.持有者，占有者；(台，架等)支持物 | |
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17
varnishes
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| 清漆的面（尤指木器或金属制品上的）( varnish的名词复数 )； 光泽面； 罩光漆 | |
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18
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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19
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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20
blotting
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| 吸墨水纸 | |
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21
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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22
partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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23
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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24
dispersed
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| adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的 | |
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25
adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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26
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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27
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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28
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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29
mosses
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| n. 藓类, 苔藓植物 名词moss的复数形式 | |
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30
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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31
ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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32
interferes
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| vi. 妨碍，冲突，干涉 | |
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33
durable
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| adj.持久的，耐久的 | |
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34
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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35
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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36
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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37
brittle
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| adj.易碎的；脆弱的；冷淡的；(声音)尖利的 | |
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38
cisterns
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| n.蓄水池，储水箱( cistern的名词复数 )；地下储水池 | |
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39
delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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40
triangular
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| adj.三角（形）的，三者间的 | |
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41
exquisitely
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| adv.精致地；强烈地；剧烈地；异常地 | |
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42
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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43
preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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44
withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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45
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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46
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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47
downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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48
cod
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| n.鳕鱼；v.愚弄；哄骗 | |
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49
crab
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| n.螃蟹，偏航，脾气乖戾的人，酸苹果；vi.捕蟹，偏航，发牢骚；vt.使偏航，发脾气 | |
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50
oyster
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| n.牡蛎；沉默寡言的人 | |
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51
residue
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| n.残余，剩余，残渣 | |
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52
platinum
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| n.白金 | |
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53
gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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54
porcelain
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| n.瓷；adj.瓷的，瓷制的 | |
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55
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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56
distilled
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| adj.由蒸馏得来的v.蒸馏( distil的过去式和过去分词 )；从…提取精华 | |
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57
cleansing
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| n. 净化(垃圾) adj. 清洁用的 动词cleanse的现在分词 | |
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58
soluble
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| adj.可溶的；可以解决的 | |
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59
impurities
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| 不纯( impurity的名词复数 )； 不洁； 淫秽； 杂质 | |
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60
decant
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| v.慢慢倒出 | |
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61
subsided
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| v.（土地）下陷（因在地下采矿）( subside的过去式和过去分词 )；减弱；下降至较低或正常水平；一下子坐在椅子等上 | |
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62
subside
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| vi.平静，平息；下沉，塌陷，沉降 | |
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63
decanted
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| v.将（酒等）自瓶中倒入另一容器( decant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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64
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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65
cleansed
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| 弄干净，清洗( cleanse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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66
interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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67
condenser
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| n.冷凝器；电容器 | |
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68
gatherings
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| 聚集( gathering的名词复数 )； 收集； 采集； 搜集 | |
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69
silt
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| n.淤泥，淤沙，粉砂层，泥沙层；vt.使淤塞；vi.被淤塞 | |
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70
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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71
scoop
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| n.铲子，舀取，独家新闻；v.汲取，舀取，抢先登出 | |
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72
microscopical
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| adj.显微镜的，精微的 | |
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73
agitating
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| 搅动( agitate的现在分词 )； 激怒； 使焦虑不安； （尤指为法律、社会状况的改变而）激烈争论 | |
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74
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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75
sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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76
saturated
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| a.饱和的，充满的 | |
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77
tapering
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| adj.尖端细的 | |
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78
turbid
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| adj.混浊的，泥水的，浓的 | |
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79
densities
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| 密集( density的名词复数 )； 稠密； 密度（固体、液体或气体单位体积的质量）； 密度（磁盘存贮数据的可用空间） | |
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80
decanting
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| n.滗析（手续）v.将（酒等）自瓶中倒入另一容器( decant的现在分词 ) | |
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81
lighter
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| n.打火机，点火器；驳船；v.用驳船运送；light的比较级 | |
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82
density
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| n.密集，密度，浓度 | |
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83
soda
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| n.苏打水；汽水 | |
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84
disintegrate
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|
| v.瓦解，解体，（使）碎裂，（使）粉碎 | |
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85
silicates
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| n.硅酸盐( silicate的名词复数 ) | |
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86
adept
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| adj.老练的，精通的 | |
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87
novice
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| adj.新手的，生手的 | |
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88
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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89
dilute
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| vt.稀释，冲淡；adj.稀释的，冲淡的 | |
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90
diluted
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| 无力的，冲淡的 | |
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91
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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92
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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93
bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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94
warping
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| n.翘面，扭曲，变形v.弄弯，变歪( warp的现在分词 )；使（行为等）不合情理，使乖戾， | |
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95
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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96
softened
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| （使）变软( soften的过去式和过去分词 )； 缓解打击； 缓和； 安慰 | |
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97
lengthy
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| adj.漫长的，冗长的 | |
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98
intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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99
devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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100
explicit
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| adj.详述的，明确的；坦率的；显然的 | |
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101
intervals
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| n.[军事]间隔( interval的名词复数 )；间隔时间；[数学]区间；（戏剧、电影或音乐会的）幕间休息 | |
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102
formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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103
disintegration
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| n.分散，解体 | |
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104
marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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105
chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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106
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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107
limestone
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| n.石灰石 | |
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108
impurity
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| n.不洁，不纯，杂质 | |
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109
caustic
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| adj.刻薄的，腐蚀性的 | |
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110
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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111
volatile
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| adj.反复无常的，挥发性的，稍纵即逝的，脾气火爆的；n.挥发性物质 | |
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112
Fahrenheit
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| n./adj.华氏温度；华氏温度计(的) | |
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113
solvent
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| n.溶剂；adj.有偿付能力的 | |
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114
mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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115
funnel
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| n.漏斗；烟囱；v.汇集 | |
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116
tarnish
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| n.晦暗，污点；vt.使失去光泽；玷污 | |
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117
rinsing
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| n.清水，残渣v.漂洗( rinse的现在分词 )；冲洗；用清水漂洗掉（肥皂泡等）；（用清水）冲掉 | |
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118
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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119
trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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120
evaporation
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| n.蒸发，消失 | |
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121
distillation
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| n.蒸馏，蒸馏法 | |
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122
ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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123
deposition
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| n.免职，罢官；作证；沉淀；沉淀物 | |
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124
dissection
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| n.分析；解剖 | |
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125
treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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126
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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127
epidermis
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| n.表皮 | |
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128
cuticle
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| n.表皮 | |
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129
petal
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| n.花瓣 | |
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130
pollen
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| n.[植]花粉 | |
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131
accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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132
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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133
pollens
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| n.花粉( pollen的名词复数 ) | |
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134
moths
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| n.蛾( moth的名词复数 ) | |
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135
apex
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| n.顶点，最高点 | |
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136
gnats
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| n.叮人小虫( gnat的名词复数 ) | |
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137
proboscis
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| n.（象的）长鼻 | |
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138
esteemed
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| adj.受人尊敬的v.尊敬( esteem的过去式和过去分词 )；敬重；认为；以为 | |
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139
beetles
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| n.甲虫( beetle的名词复数 ) | |
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140
flea
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| n.跳蚤 | |
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141
glazed
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|
| adj.光滑的，像玻璃的；上过釉的；呆滞无神的v.装玻璃( glaze的过去式)；上釉于，上光；（目光）变得呆滞无神 | |
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142
inverted
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|
| adj.反向的，倒转的v.使倒置，使反转( invert的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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143
confinement
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| n.幽禁，拘留，监禁；分娩；限制，局限 | |
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144
rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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145
illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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146
contraction
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| n.缩略词，缩写式，害病 | |
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147
fins
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| [医]散热片；鱼鳍；飞边；鸭掌 | |
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148
spores
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| n.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的名词复数 )v.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的第三人称单数 ) | |
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149
velvet
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| n.丝绒，天鹅绒；adj.丝绒制的，柔软的 | |
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150
curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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151
fronds
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| n.蕨类或棕榈类植物的叶子( frond的名词复数 ) | |
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152
frond
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| n.棕榈类植物的叶子 | |
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153
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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154
denudation
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| n.剥下；裸露；滥伐；剥蚀 | |
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155
nettle
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| n.荨麻；v.烦忧，激恼 | |
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156
transparent
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| adj.明显的，无疑的；透明的 | |
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157
preservative
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| n.防腐剂；防腐料；保护料；预防药 | |
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158
bruised
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| [医]青肿的，瘀紫的 | |
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159
maceration
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| n.泡软，因绝食而衰弱 | |
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160
prolific
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| adj.丰富的，大量的；多产的，富有创造力的 | |
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161
orchids
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| n.兰花( orchid的名词复数 ) | |
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162
fungi
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| n.真菌，霉菌 | |
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163
fungus
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| n.真菌，真菌类植物 | |
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164
blight
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| n.枯萎病；造成破坏的因素；vt.破坏，摧残 | |
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165
elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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166
blights
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| 使凋萎( blight的第三人称单数 )； 使颓丧； 损害； 妨害 | |
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167
spine
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| n.脊柱，脊椎；(动植物的)刺；书脊 | |
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168
spines
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| n.脊柱( spine的名词复数 )；脊椎；（动植物的）刺；书脊 | |
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169
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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170
perch
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| n.栖木，高位，杆；v.栖息，就位，位于 | |
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171
deferred
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| adj.延期的，缓召的v.拖延，延缓，推迟( defer的过去式和过去分词 )；服从某人的意愿，遵从 | |
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172
interfering
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| adj. 妨碍的 动词interfere的现在分词 | |
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