Even if neglect of this part of the Scripture21 is partly chargeable to heightened standards of ethics22 or theology, the loss incurred23 is great. As a matter of fact, depreciation24 of its ethical temper is often based on inaccurate25 notions, often is exaggerated. In comparison with our fathers, who without commentaries read through their Bibles from cover to cover, we have not gained as we should; for, whilst we pride ourselves (with what measure of justice is uncertain) on being more sensitive to religious values, they were far better acquainted with the religious facts. They at least knew the contents of Scripture; we, who have at our disposal abundance of interpretative help whereby to learn the nature of the Bible and with instructed minds consider its spiritual worth, too often are ignorant both of text and commentary. Doubtless the fault is due to certain characteristics of our time. This is a feverish26 impatient age; if our mental fare is not served us like our daily{31} information, put up into easy paragraphs, so that he who runs may read, we will not stay to seek it; and the Old Testament is not an easy book, though it answers patience with astonishing rewards. Candidly27, how does it stand with knowledge of the Bible at the present time? In charity let the question be addressed only to those who have a genuine interest in the Christian28 religion, desiring to rule their lives by its ideals and cherishing its promises. Even to such persons what is the Bible? A few there are who have found or made opportunity for serious consideration of its Books, and these have certainly felt the fascination30 of the vast and varied31 interests that have won and retained for biblical study the life-long service of many brilliant scholars. But to the others, and obviously they are thousands of thousands, the Bible is essentially32 the book of religion. As such, the New Testament means the Gospel narratives34, some immortal35 chapters from St. Paul, a few verses in Hebrews, and St. John’s vision of that City where death shall be no more. And what—religiously—in similar fashion is the Old Testament, except a few, comforting, beautiful Psalms36; some childhood memories of Abraham, Joseph, Moses, generous David and brave Daniel; a tale or two of Elijah; a procession of Kings, and an uncharted sea of grand but most perplexing Prophets? Asked for a more general account, some would describe the Old Testament as a record of the laws, history, and religious ideas of the Hebrew people; others would answer that it is “part of the Word of God,” but they might all be at a loss to say what is the religious value of Leviticus, what the spiritual relation between Genesis and the Gospel, between Kings and Chronicles, between Job and Revelation. Probably the great majority of men at the present time would be quite willing to confess that their knowledge of the Bible is vague and insufficient37, but few, we believe, would suspect that there is anything{32} wrong with the basis from which their thinking proceeds: so firmly is it fixed38 in men’s minds that the Bible is merely the book of religion. The Bible is that, but more also, more and yet again more. And how easily we might have realised the fact! Ought not the presence of these surprisingly heterogeneous39 proverbs alone to have stirred our curiosity, and so compelled the enlargement of our thoughts about the Old Testament? Without needing to be urged, men should, of their own accord, have perceived the astonishing range of interest and the wealth of literature the Bible contains, and should have seen in this variety a clue that would lead them by pleasant paths to treasures artistic40 and intellectual as well as religious. Thereby41 no loss could ensue religiously, but on the contrary gain. The greater our recognition of the artistic qualities of the sacred literature, the more exact and full our understanding of the history of the Jews and of their beliefs and interpretation42 of life, so much the more wonderful will the actual development of religion in Israel be seen to be. This is the point to which the above remarks are meant to lead. If the Biblical proverbs compel as a first conclusion the recognition of how much more the Old Testament is than a text-book for theology, that is a minimum and an initial discovery; our appreciation43 of its meaning will assuredly not end there. The growth, in Israel, of the knowledge of God into a high and holy faith is an indisputable fact. Increase your comprehension of the circumstances attending this development, and your faith in the reality of a self-revealing God should increase also.
So much for the presence of these proverbs in the Bible. Now consider the affirmation with which the first chapter concluded: that proverbs have once been literature. That claim may be advanced on behalf of the sayings of the Book of Proverbs and Ecclesiasticus. It is of course obvious that the difficulty which has to be overcome is the{33} essential independence of proverbial sayings: each is so relentlessly44 complete in itself. How can they be so related to each other as to acquire the higher unity29 indispensable for literature? The lack of system in the Book of Proverbs has already been admitted frankly45; but the point must again be emphasised. So far from the five chapters with the 154 maxims, referred to above, being exceptional they are typical of the greater portion of the Book. Continually we encounter the same astonishing disregard for consecutive46, or even cognate47, thought in the grouping of the proverbs. And yet, despite this fact, the attentive48 reader will become conscious of a subtle unity pervading49 the Book. The impression will grow that the confusion is not absolute; somehow it is being held within bounds, whilst here and there chaos50 has evidently yielded to the command of a directing purpose. Obstinate51 independents as proverbs are, one discovers that here their masses, unruly though they still may be, have nevertheless become an army, a host sufficiently52 disciplined to serve a common end. As with a complicated piece of music through the intricacies of the notes runs ever an underlying53 theme, so here through the medley54 of disparate sayings can be heard the preaching of one great thought—“Wisdom.” Behind the proverbs, behind the Book, we discover men, preachers and teachers of an Idea, enthusiasts55 for a Cause—“Wisdom.” Just what that phrase implied, just what manner of men those advocates of Wisdom were, we shall see in due course. The point for the moment is that these Jewish proverbs were not gathered haphazard56, nor simply as a collection of Jewish proverbs; but for the express purpose of illustrating57, developing, and enforcing the conception of Wisdom. Thus, through the influence of this specific intention, they received in sufficient measure the unity of literature. This fact is of the utmost importance for our subject, for it means that these proverbs may{34} be considered not merely one by one but in their totality; that is, in their combination as text-books inculcating Wisdom. So regarded, they afford a glimpse of a remarkable58 class of men in the intensely interesting century or two when the intellectual foundations of Western civilisation59 were being laid down. No doubt each proverb bears the impress of reality and has its individual interest, is (as it were) a coin struck out of active experience; but the same may be said of the collected proverbs as a whole, and because the whole has its own significance, the parts acquire a meaning and value they would not otherwise possess. The Jews are an astonishing people. St. Paul perceived that they had a genius for religion, but they have had genius for many other things besides, as their strange fortunes testify. Their hand prospers60, whithersoever it is turned. Who but the Jews can claim to have had a Golden Age in proverbs? In utilising their popular sayings for a definite purpose, and in thus making them literature, the Jews succeeded in a feat61 that other nations have scarcely emulated62, far less equalled. Moreover in the process the Jews made their proverbs superlatively good. Some think that for wit and acuteness the ancient sayings of the Chinese are unsurpassed; for multitude and variety those of the Arabs and the Spaniards. But the Jewish proverbs of this “Wisdom” period excel all others in the supreme63 quality of being possession of all men for all time. They are marvellously free from provincial64 and temporary elements; and this is the more remarkable in that the Jews were intensely nationalistic, and their literature, as a rule, is steeped in racial sentiment. Of these proverbs, however, very few must be considered Hebraic in an exclusive sense, or indeed Oriental. The mass of them have been at home in many lands and many centuries, because they speak to the elemental needs of men. Again and again they touch the very heart of Humanity. They are universal.{35} But that is the characteristic of genius. If therefore proverbs be our study, we could ask no better subject than these proverbs of the Jews.
Even so our theme is far from easy. Life, when visible before us, can with difficulty be portrayed65. Harder by far is it to recall life from literature, translating the symbols of letters into the sound of speech and looking through words into the colour and movement of the scenes that by the magic of human language are there preserved, accurately66 enough, yet only like pale shadows of the reality. Hardest of all is it, when the documents to be studied are records of a far-past age and the life that of an alien people. But how well worth every effort is the task! “Many of us,” writes Mark Rutherford, “have felt that we would give all our books if we could but see with our own eyes how a single day was passed by a single ancient Jewish, Greek, or Roman family; how the house was opened in the morning; how the meals were prepared; what was said; how the husband, wife, and children went about their work; what clothes they wore, and what were their amusements.”[11] Information so detailed67 as Mark Rutherford desired will not be afforded by the Jewish proverbs. Nevertheless they are full of frank, intimate, comment on the ways of men and women, and of reflection on the experiences we all suffer or enjoy, and certainly should learn how best to encounter. If they yield less than might be wished for, still what they show is shown in the na?ve and homely68 fashion that is so illuminating69. Such being the difficulty of our task, and such the encouragement to pursue it, the reader will perhaps permit at the outset a short statement mentioning the writings where Jewish proverbs are to be found, and giving somewhat fuller information regarding the dates and composition of the two works from which the material of the following chapters will chiefly be derived70.{36}
THE SOURCES OF JEWISH PROVERBS
I. Occasional Proverbs. In the historical and prophetical Books of the Old Testament there are to be found some popular sayings current in early Israel. Though few in number, they possess considerable interest, and will therefore be discussed in Chapter IV.
II. The Book of Proverbs. This Book is the principal “source” of the proverbs considered in this volume. Unlike modern writings, which are usually the work of one author and will rarely require a longer period than five or ten years for their composition, many of the Books of the Bible have reached their present form as the outcome of a protracted72 process of compilation73 and revision perhaps extending over many generations and involving the work of numerous writers. The words of earlier authors were utilised again and again in later times by others who, having somewhat similar ideas and purposes in view, exercised complete liberty in reproducing, or modifying, or adding to the material they found to hand.[12] Such a book is Proverbs. The consequence is that the question of date and authorship cannot be answered in a sentence. The problem of the structure of the Book rises as a preliminary subject.[13]{37}
(a) Structure. The Book of Proverbs in its present form represents the combination of five originally independent collections of the single proverbs which are of course the ultimate material of the Book. There is some evidence that these five collections were themselves built out of still smaller groups of proverbs, but such subdivisions cannot be traced with certainty, and for our purpose may be neglected. The five main sections are as follows:—(a) In chs. 1-9, a number of epigrams, sonnets74, and discourses75 in praise of wisdom. (b) In chs. 101-2216, a collection of two-line (“unit”) proverbs. (c) In chs. 2217-2422 and 2423-34, two very similar collections of four-line (“quatrain”) proverbs. (d) In chs. 25-29, a collection of two-line proverbs. (e) In chs. 30, 31, epigrams, sonnets, and an acrostic poem.
(b) Date and Authorship. Both in its component76 parts and as a composite whole the Book of Proverbs is an anonymous77 work. It is true that titles, such as “The proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel” (Pr. 11), are prefixed to several portions of the Book[14], but they do not imply authorship, although to those unacquainted with the nature of ancient books that may seem the necessary meaning. Their significance will be considered later, on p. 71.
The date of origin and the authorship of single proverbs are seldom discoverable: a tantalising circumstance for those who would write about them. And yet, perhaps, their reticence78 is wise. It may be that some of the noblest sayings have sprung from the lips of a poor man in a peasant home; and there are fools who would thenceforth despise them for their birth. Of the individual sayings in the Book of{38} Proverbs a few, in matter if not in exact phrase, may go back to ancient days; some may be due to Solomon himself or date from his period; but the vast majority[15], for cogent80 reasons of style, language, tone, ethical and social customs and so forth79, are post-exilic—that is, not earlier than about 450 B.C.; nor on the other hand are they later than about 200 B.C., by which time the several sections had been combined to form substantially the present Book.[16]
Something may be said concerning the relative priority of the five sections of the Book. Internal evidence points to sections b and d as the oldest portions, then section c; sections a and e (i.e., chs. 1-9, 30, 31) being probably the latest groups. But of the precise date when these collections were severally formed and combined, and of the names of the men by whom the work was done, we are unaware81. Fortunately our ignorance of detail is but a negligible trifle compared with our firm knowledge of the general fact that in their present form these proverbs belong to the period 350-200 B.C., and their authors and compilers were men who styled themselves “The Wise,” and were known in the Jewish community by that term. A hundred and fifty years may{39} seem a wide margin82, but it is a mistake to wish it less; if anything, it ought to be increased. For the point to be grasped is that Proverbs represents the thoughts and ideals of the Wise throughout that whole period (350-200 B.C.) and even longer. The exact dates of the combination and final revision of the component collections of sayings are therefore questions of minor83 importance. The Book is not to be treated as a fixed literary product of any one particular year, but as representative of the teachings of the Wise during very many years.
To the same class of men we owe, besides Proverbs, other famous writings, of which two, Job and Ecclesiastes, were also included in the Old Testament Canon, and two are to be found in the Apocrypha84, namely, Ecclesiasticus (or, as it is often called, The Wisdom of Ben Sirach) and the Wisdom of Solomon. Of these four writings the two first, Job and Ecclesiastes, are considered in other volumes of this series,[17] and therefore, except for one or two quotations85, will not be utilised here, although they both contain a number of proverbial sayings. The Wisdom of Solomon also will seldom be noticed in this book: it is much later in date than Proverbs, and is not a collection of proverbs, but a set of discourses in praise of Wisdom.
III. Ecclesiasticus. On the other hand, the book of Ecclesiasticus or The Wisdom of Ben Sirach, is—next to Proverbs—the source from which we shall derive71 most material. Like Proverbs it is a storehouse of sayings about Wisdom, but fortunately, unlike Proverbs, it is not anonymous, and can be dated with some exactitude. The author or compiler of the book was one, Jesus ben (i.e., Son of) Sirach, who lived in Jerusalem about 250-180 B.C., his volume being finished about 190 B.C. Some fifty years later his grandson, then living in Egypt, translated it into Greek,{40} and until recently the book was known to us only in its Greek form. Now, however, a large part of the original Hebrew text has been recovered, with the happy result that the Greek version can frequently be checked and obscurities be removed by means of the Hebrew.
Besides the single, “unit,” proverbs, there are in Ecclesiasticus, and in Proverbs also though to a less extent, a number of short sonnets and essays. These longer passages will be freely referred to, but perhaps a word in justification86 will here be in place. It has been said with truth, that “often a parable87 is an elaborate proverb, and a proverb is a parable in germ.” That comment excellently indicates the nature of the passages in question; most of them are expansions of some brief gnomic phrase[18]. When, for example, in E. 2014f we read, “The gift of a fool shall not profit thee, for his eyes are many instead of one; he will give little and upbraid88 much and he will open his mouth like a crier; to-day he will lend and to-morrow he will ask it again: such an one is a hateful man....” it is obvious that the verse is only an elaboration and explanation of the enigmatic proverb printed in heavy type.
IV. The New Testament. Scattered89 through the pages of the New Testament are more allusions90 to popular sayings than one would readily expect. Almost all offer interesting comment on the life and manner of the times; but, unfortunately, they will fall outside the scope of this book, except for occasional references.
V. Finally, a great number of Jewish proverbs are mentioned in the post-Biblical Rabbinical writings—the tractates of the Mishna, the Midrashim, and Talmuds. Embedded91 in a vast and difficult literature (how difficult only those know who have attempted seriously to study it), these later Jewish sayings have been somewhat inaccess{41}ible to Gentile students. They are interesting in many ways, but the development of our subject in this volume will give opportunity for the mention only of a few. Should any reader desire to know more of these Rabbinic sayings, he can now be referred to a small but trustworthy collection recently made by A. Cohen and published under the title Ancient Jewish Proverbs.
The question is, What can the Jewish proverbs tell us about human life? The conclusion of the first chapter left us perplexed93 by indicating too many paths that might be followed. This chapter solves the difficulty by suggesting that these proverbs will have a great deal to say to us, if we choose to treat them in their historical aspect. To do so is to follow the king’s highway; but when the plain road promises an interesting journey, it is folly94 to search for bypaths. The human story seems naturally to divide into past and present; and, because the present immediately concerns us, we are all tempted92 to ignore the past and count it negligible. To the uneducated man the past is dead; and he fails to perceive that, if the facts of history are unknown, the present, though it may fascinate, will prove bewildering. The truth is that history is one and continuous, the present is organically related to the past, and the division between them in our thought is artificial and perilously95 misleading. Nothing is of greater practical value than to learn and ponder the narrative33 of the past, provided heart and mind are kept alert to discern the guidance it continually offers to ourselves. To neglect its lessons is to starve the power of judgment in the present. Much that by our own unaided trials can only be learnt slowly, painfully, and at great hazard, may be discovered swiftly and securely by observation of the experience of other men. In this spirit let our studies of the Jewish proverbs be first of the past: what glimpses of former days are discernible in their homely words?{42}
Let us commence as if we had some leisure at our disposal, and let us use it by following up occasional traces of very ancient times. Then we shall proceed to the more strenuous96 and more rewarding task of recovering a picture of the stirring years when Wisdom was moulding the Jewish proverbs to her urgent needs. Always, however, as the records yield up these tales of byegone days we are to keep in mind ourselves and our own generation, striving so to interpret the fortunes of men of old that we in our turn may learn from them how to avoid folly, endure trials, use success, and discover the secret of content. Finally we shall gather such of the proverbs as may please our fancy, and briefly97 consider them in themselves for their perennial98, as opposed to their original or historical, interest.
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1
specially
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| adv.特定地；特殊地；明确地 | |
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oracles
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| 神示所( oracle的名词复数 )； 神谕； 圣贤； 哲人 | |
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maxim
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| n.格言，箴言 | |
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profusion
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| n.挥霍；丰富 | |
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adages
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| n.谚语，格言( adage的名词复数 ) | |
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ransacked
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| v.彻底搜查( ransack的过去式和过去分词 )；抢劫，掠夺 | |
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scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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witty
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| adj.机智的，风趣的 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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utilitarian
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| adj.实用的，功利的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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unduly
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| adv.过度地，不适当地 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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maxims
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| n.格言，座右铭( maxim的名词复数 ) | |
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judgment
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longing
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scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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ethics
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| n.伦理学；伦理观，道德标准 | |
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incurred
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| [医]招致的，遭受的； incur的过去式 | |
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depreciation
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inaccurate
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feverish
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candidly
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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unity
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fascination
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varied
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essentially
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narrative
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narratives
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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psalms
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insufficient
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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heterogeneous
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| adj.庞杂的；异类的 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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relentlessly
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| adv.不屈不挠地；残酷地；不间断 | |
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frankly
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| adv.坦白地，直率地；坦率地说 | |
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consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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cognate
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| adj.同类的，同源的，同族的；n.同家族的人，同源词 | |
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attentive
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| adj.注意的，专心的；关心(别人)的，殷勤的 | |
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pervading
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的现在分词 ) | |
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chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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medley
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| n.混合 | |
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enthusiasts
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| n.热心人，热衷者( enthusiast的名词复数 ) | |
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haphazard
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| adj.无计划的，随意的，杂乱无章的 | |
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illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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civilisation
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| n.文明，文化，开化，教化 | |
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prospers
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| v.成功，兴旺( prosper的第三人称单数 ) | |
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feat
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| n.功绩；武艺，技艺；adj.灵巧的，漂亮的，合适的 | |
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emulated
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| v.与…竞争( emulate的过去式和过去分词 )；努力赶上；计算机程序等仿真；模仿 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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accurately
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| adv.准确地，精确地 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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homely
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| adj.家常的，简朴的；不漂亮的 | |
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illuminating
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| a.富于启发性的，有助阐明的 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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compilation
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| n.编译，编辑 | |
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sonnets
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| n.十四行诗( sonnet的名词复数 ) | |
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discourses
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| 论文( discourse的名词复数 )； 演说； 讲道； 话语 | |
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component
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| n.组成部分，成分，元件；adj.组成的，合成的 | |
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anonymous
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| adj.无名的；匿名的；无特色的 | |
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reticence
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| n.沉默，含蓄 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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cogent
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| adj.强有力的，有说服力的 | |
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unaware
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| a.不知道的，未意识到的 | |
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margin
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| n.页边空白；差额；余地，余裕；边，边缘 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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apocrypha
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| n.伪经，伪书 | |
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quotations
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| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
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justification
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| n.正当的理由；辩解的理由 | |
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parable
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| n.寓言，比喻 | |
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upbraid
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| v.斥责，责骂，责备 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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embedded
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| a.扎牢的 | |
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tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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perplexed
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| adj.不知所措的 | |
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folly
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| n.愚笨，愚蠢，蠢事，蠢行，傻话 | |
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perilously
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| adv.充满危险地，危机四伏地 | |
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strenuous
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| adj.奋发的，使劲的；紧张的；热烈的，狂热的 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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perennial
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| adj.终年的；长久的 | |
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