F all the activities of human nature few are so interesting and so insistent1 on our sympathy as the eternal combat which goes on between man on the one side and the forces of Nature on the other. Conscious of his own limitations and his own littleness, man has nevertheless throughout the ages striven hard to overcome these forces and to exercise his own freedom. But he has done this not so much by direct opposition2 as by employing Nature to overcome Nature; and there can be no better instance of this than is found in the art of tacking3, whereby the mariner4 harnesses the wind in order to enable him to go against the wind.
Winds and tides and waves are mightier5 than all the strength of humanity put together. The statement was as true in pre-Dynastic times as it is to-day. For a long time man was appalled6 by their superhuman strength and capabilities7; he preferred to have nothing to do with them. Those nations which had their habitation inland naturally feared them most. But as familiarity with danger engenders8 a certain contempt, so those who dwelt by the sea began to lose something of their awe10 and to venture to wrestle11 with the great11 trio of wind, wave, and tide. Had they not exercised such courage and independence the history and development of the world would have been entirely12 different.
It is obvious that the growth of the arts of the sea—by which is meant ship designing and building, seamanship and navigation—can only occur among seafaring people. You cannot expect to find these arts prospering14 in the centre of a continent, but only along the fringe where land meets sea. And, similarly, where you find very little coast, or a very dangerous coast, or a more convenient land route than the sea, you will not find the people of that country taking to the awe-inspiring sea without absolute necessity. This statement is so obvious in itself, so well borne out by history and so well supported by facts, that it would scarcely seem to need much elucidation15. Even to-day, even in an age which has so much to be thankful for in respect of conveniences, we actually hear of landsmen looking forward with positive horror to an hour’s crossing the Channel in a fast and able steamship16, with its turbines, its comfortable cabins, and the rest. If it were possible to reach the Continent by land rather than water they would do so and rejoice. So it was in the olden times thousands of years ago; so, no doubt, it will ever be.
Strictly17 speaking, notwithstanding that the Egyptians did an enormous amount of sailing; notwithstanding that they were great shipbuilders and that their influence is still felt in every full-rigged ship, yet it is an indisputable fact, as Professor Maspero, the distinguished18 Egyptologist, remarks, that they were not acquainted with the sea even if they did not utterly19 dislike it. For their country had but little coast, and was for the most part bordered by sand-hills and marshes20 which made it uninhabitable for those who might otherwise have dwelt by the shore and become seafarers. On the contrary, the Egyptians preferred the land routes to12 the sea. It is true that they had the Mediterranean21 on their north and the Red Sea on their east, both of which they alluded22 to as the “very-green.” True, also, it is that there was at least one great sea expedition to the Land of Punt, but this was an exception to their usual mode of life.
At the same time, though they were primarily river sailors rather than blue-water seamen23, yet they had used the Nile so thoroughly24 and so persistently25, both for rowing and for sailing, that on the occasions when they took to the sea itself they were bound to come out of the ordeal26 fairly well, just as a Thames waterman, accustomed all his life to frail27 craft and smooth waters, would be likely to make a moderately good seaman13 if his work were suddenly changed from the river to the ocean. From childhood and through generations they had worked their square-sailed craft on the Nile and acquired a thorough knowledge of watermanship, and when the crews of Thebes manned those ships which carried Queen Hatsopsitu’s expedition to Punt and returned in safety back to their homes, they were able to put their lessons learned on the Nile to the best of use on the Red Sea.
“River sailors rather than blue-water seamen.”
So also on the Mediterranean the Egyptian ships were seen. We know that the galleys28 of Rameses II plied30 regularly between Tanis and Tyre. This was no smooth-water passage, for the Syrian sea could be very rough, and on a later page we shall give the actual experience of an Egyptian skipper who had a pretty bad time hereabouts in his ship. Even those skilful31 seamen, the Ph?nicians, found it required a good deal of care to avoid the current which flowed along their coasts and brought to them the mud from the mouths of the Nile. Now it was but natural that when the Egyptians took to the sea they should use, for their trading voyages to Syria or their expedition to Punt,13 craft very similar to those which they were wont32 to sail on the Nile. In fact, it was possible for one and the same ship to be used for river and sea. In my “Sailing Ships and their Story,” the appearance of the Egyptian ships has been so thoroughly discussed that it is hardly necessary to go further into that matter at present. It is enough to state that they were decked both at bow and stern, that short, narrow benches were placed close to the bulwarks33, leaving an empty space in the centre14 where the cargo34 could be stowed, and that there were fifteen rowers a side. There was one mast about 24 feet high setting one squaresail which was about 45 feet along its foot, and in addition to the oarsmen there were four topmen, a couple of helmsmen, and one pilot at the bow, who gave the necessary instructions to the helmsmen as to the course to be taken. Finally, there was an overseer to see that the rowers were kept up to their work and not allowed to slack.
On the whole the Egyptians were a peace-loving nation and not great fighters; but there were times when they had to engage in naval36 warfare37, and on such occasions the ship’s bulwarks were raised by a long mantlet which shielded the bodies of the oarsmen, leaving only their heads exposed. And there were soldiers, too, placed on board these Egyptian ships in time of warfare. Two were stationed on the forecastle, one was in the fighting-top high on the mast, whilst the remainder were disposed on the bridge and quarter-deck, ready to shoot their arrows into the approaching enemy.
The navigation of the Egyptian seamen was but elementary. They coasted for the most part, rarely venturing out of sight of land, fixing their positions by familiar landmarks38. This was by day; but at night they lay-to until the dawn returned, when they were enabled to resume their journey. Such methods, of course, demanded a longer time than more able seamen would have required, but the Egyptians were in no hurry, so it mattered not. It is patent enough, from the many representations which we find of craft on the Egyptian monuments which have been unearthed39, that ships and boats played a highly important part in the life and habits of the Egyptians; but beyond the funereal40 customs and the connection which these craft had with their religious ideas, we know but little, if we15 except those models and those representations of their bigger ships seen with sail and mast. It is unquestionable that the shipbuilding industry was one of the most important activities which these Nile-dwellers engaged in; and illustrations still exist which show a shipwright’s yard of the Sixth Dynasty. We can see the men busily at work, whilst the dockyard manager or superintendent41 is carried in a kind of Sedan-chair to see how the work is progressing. Some are engaged hammering and chipping away at the wood that is to become a boat; some are fixing the different sections in place; whilst others are setting up the truss which was employed for preventing the ship from “hogging.”
But already by the close of the Third Dynasty, Professor Flinders Petrie says, the Egyptian shipbuilders were using quite large supplies of wood for their craft. In one year alone, Senofern constructed sixty ships and imported forty ships of cedar42. When we consider that the Nile was the great national highway of Egypt, it was but natural that shipbuilding should be one of the most important trades. There were, first, the light skiffs which could be easily carried from place to place. There were also the larger freight-carriers which sailed the Nile and the open sea; and lastly, there were the houseboats, a kind of modern dahabeeah. The small skiffs were made of reeds for lightness, and coated with pitch. They were punted along the shallows with a pole, or paddled. They could carry only a couple of people, and were practically ferry-boats or dinghies. But the larger boats were built of wood, and probably sometimes of acacia. The masts were of fir which was imported from Syria, the sails being occasionally of papyrus43, but probably also of linen44.
The lotus plant played a conspicuous45 part in Egyptian shipbuilding. We see the smaller craft being strengthened16 by the stalks of this plant, bundles of which are depicted46 being carried down to the yard on the backs of the shipwright’s men. The tail-piece, even of the biggest sea-going craft, is shown to be in the shape of a lotus bud or flower. That they knew how to build ships of great tonnage at these dockyards is evident from the fact that Sesostris had a sacred barge47 constructed that was 280 cubits long. And it was doubtless owing to the great length of the Nile sailing ships, and their consequent inability to turn quickly, that we find it unusual for the Egyptian ships to have only a single steering48 oar35; very frequently there was one each side at the quarter.
More than this it is difficult to state regarding the manner in which they employed their ships. There is indeed very much that we should like to know, and we cannot be too thankful that modern exploration has actually revealed so many pictorial49 representations. The Egyptians were not instinctively50 seamen as the Ph?nicians and the Vikings, and if there had been no Nile it is probable that the sea and its coast might have meant even less to them than was actually the case. Nor was it any different with the Assyrians, whose kings feared the sea for a long time. They never ventured on its surface without being absolutely compelled. At a later stage, when their victories brought them to the shores of the Mediterranean, they were constrained51 to admire its beauty, and presently even took a certain amount of pleasure in sailing on its bosom52, but nothing would tempt9 them far from land or to make a voyage.
But then there came a new precedent53 when Sennacherib embarked54 his army on board a fleet and went in search of the exiles of Bit-Iakin. The only ships that were at his disposal were those belonging to the Chaldean States. These craft were in every way unsuitable;17 they were obsolete55, clumsy, heavy, bad sea-boats, and slow. During his wars, however, he had seen the famous sailors of Sidon, and noted56 alike the progress which these seafarers had made in actual shipbuilding, and in the handling of their craft at sea. These were of course Ph?nicians, and among his prisoners Sennacherib found a sufficient number of Ph?nicians to build for him a fleet, establishing one shipbuilding yard on the Euphrates and another on the Tigris. The result was that they turned out a number of craft of the galley29 type with a double row of oarsmen. These two divisions of newly built craft met on the Euphrates not far from the sea, the Euphrates being always navigable. The contingent57 from the Tigris, however, had to come by the canal which united the two rivers. And then, manned with crews from Tyre and Sidon, and Cypriot Greeks, the fleet went forth58 to its destination; Sennacherib then disembarked his men and rendered his expedition victorious59.
Here, then, is just another instance of a non-seafaring people taking to the sea not from choice, not from instinct, but from compulsion—because there was no other alternative; and all the time employing seafaring mercenaries to perform a work that was strange to landsmen, just as in later days at different periods (until they themselves had grown in knowledge and experience), the English had to import sailors from Friesland in the time of Alfred, or Italians in the early Tudor period. The sea was still hardly more than a half-opened book, and few there were who dared to look into its pages.
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1
insistent
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| adj.迫切的，坚持的 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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tacking
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| （帆船）抢风行驶，定位焊[铆]紧钉 | |
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mariner
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| n.水手号不载人航天探测器，海员，航海者 | |
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5
mightier
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| adj. 强有力的，强大的，巨大的 adv. 很，极其 | |
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6
appalled
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| v.使惊骇，使充满恐惧( appall的过去式和过去分词)adj.惊骇的；丧胆的 | |
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capabilities
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| n.能力( capability的名词复数 )；可能；容量；[复数]潜在能力 | |
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8
engenders
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| v.产生（某形势或状况），造成，引起( engender的第三人称单数 ) | |
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9
tempt
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| vt.引诱，勾引，吸引，引起…的兴趣 | |
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awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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11
wrestle
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| vi.摔跤，角力；搏斗；全力对付 | |
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12
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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13
seaman
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| n.海员，水手，水兵 | |
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14
prospering
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| 成功，兴旺( prosper的现在分词 ) | |
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15
elucidation
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| n.说明，阐明 | |
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16
steamship
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| n.汽船，轮船 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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18
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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19
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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20
marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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21
Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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22
alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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23
seamen
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| n.海员 | |
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24
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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frail
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| adj.身体虚弱的；易损坏的 | |
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galleys
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| n.平底大船，战舰( galley的名词复数 )；（船上或航空器上的）厨房 | |
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29
galley
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| n.（飞机或船上的）厨房单层甲板大帆船；军舰舰长用的大划艇； | |
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30
plied
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| v.使用（工具）( ply的过去式和过去分词 )；经常供应（食物、饮料）；固定往来；经营生意 | |
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31
skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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32
wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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33
bulwarks
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| n.堡垒( bulwark的名词复数 )；保障；支柱；舷墙 | |
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34
cargo
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| n.(一只船或一架飞机运载的)货物 | |
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35
oar
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| n.桨，橹，划手；v.划行 | |
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36
naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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37
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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38
landmarks
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| n.陆标( landmark的名词复数 )；目标；（标志重要阶段的）里程碑 ~ (in sth)；有历史意义的建筑物（或遗址） | |
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39
unearthed
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| 出土的（考古） | |
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40
funereal
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| adj.悲哀的；送葬的 | |
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41
superintendent
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| n.监督人，主管，总监；(英国)警务长 | |
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42
cedar
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| n.雪松，香柏(木) | |
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43
papyrus
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| n.古以纸草制成之纸 | |
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44
linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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45
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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46
depicted
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| 描绘，描画( depict的过去式和过去分词 )； 描述 | |
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47
barge
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| n.平底载货船，驳船 | |
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48
steering
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| n.操舵装置 | |
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49
pictorial
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| adj.绘画的；图片的；n．画报 | |
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50
instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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51
constrained
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| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
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52
bosom
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| n.胸，胸部；胸怀；内心；adj.亲密的 | |
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53
precedent
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| n.先例，前例；惯例；adj.在前的，在先的 | |
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54
embarked
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| 乘船( embark的过去式和过去分词 )； 装载； 从事 | |
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55
obsolete
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| adj.已废弃的，过时的 | |
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56
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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57
contingent
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| adj.视条件而定的；n.一组，代表团，分遣队 | |
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58
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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59
victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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