15. The question we have now before us, whether animal actions are interpretable on purely14 mechanical principles? can only be answered after a preliminary settlement of the terms. The first of these terms to be settled364 is that of mechanism15, when applied16 to the vital organism. If the organism is a mechanism, its actions must of course be interpretable on mechanical principles. But this general truth requires a special interpretation17, if on inquiry18 we find that the organism is a particular kind of mechanism, one which is not to be classed under the same head as inorganic19 machines. And this we do find. In Problem I. § 22, will be found a statement of the radical20 difference between organic and inorganic mechanisms21, due to the differences in their structures. But the differences there noted22 do not affect the operation of abstract mechanical principles, which are of course manifested wherever there is a dependent sequence of material changes; and which are the same abstract principles in the mechanism of the heavens, the mechanism of a paper-mill, or the mechanism of an animal body. In other words, the principles are abstract, and are abstracted from all concrete cases by letting drop what is special to each case, retaining only what is common to all. This procedure is indispensable to the ideal constructions of Science. But we cannot rightly interpret any concrete case by abstract principles alone; we must restore the special characters which the abstraction has eliminated. The most lucid23 explanation of the mechanism of the heavens will leave us quite in the dark respecting the action of a paper-mill, until we have studied the mill at work, ascertained24 its structure and mode of operation, and therein detected what is common both to its mechanism and to the mechanism of the heavens. Thus equipped, we approach the study of the animal mechanism, but find ourselves wholly in the dark until we have also ascertained its structure and mode of operation; then we may recognize in it the principles of dependent sequence which had been abstracted from the paper-mill and the heavens. To neglect this concrete study, and to argue from Machinery365 to Life in disregard of special conditions, is not more rational than to assume that the movement of a piston25 is prompted by volition.
16. The recognition of special differences is no denial of fundamental identities. We do not deny the presence of phenomena26 in organisms which belong to physical and chemical agencies, but we assert that organisms have other phenomena besides these, dependent on conditions not present in physical and chemical phenomena. The same material elements and forces may be recognized in a moving inorganic body, and a moving organic body; but in the latter there is a speciality of combination with a speciality of result. Just as the same words and laws of grammatical construction may be recognized in prose and poetry; yet poetry is not prose, but has special rules of its own, and special effects. In an organism, as in a machine, the adjustment of the parts is a condition of the mechanical action; the one enables us to explain the other. But the parts adjusted, and the consequences of the adjustment, are unlike in the two cases. This unlikeness is pervading27 and profound. One cardinal28 difference is that the combination of the parts is in the machine a fixed29, in the organism a fluctuating adjustment; and this fluctuation30 is due to certain vital processes subjectively31 known as sensitive guidance. Hence machines have fixed and calculated mechanisms; whereas organisms are variable and to a great extent incalculable mechanisms.
17. I conceive, therefore, that a theory which reduces vital activities to purely physical processes is self-condemned. Not that we are to admit the agency of any extra-organic principle, such as the hypothesis of Vitalism assumes (Prob. I. § 14); but only the agency of an intra-organic principle, or the abstract symbol of all the co-operant conditions—the special combination of forces which result in organization. This assures us that an366 organism is a peculiar kind of mechanism, the processes in which are peculiar to it; and among those processes there is one which results in what we call Sensibility. This Sensibility is a factor which raises the phenomena into another order. To overlook its presence is fatal to any explanation of the organic mechanism. Yet it is overlooked by those who tell us that when an impression on a nerve is conveyed to the brain, and is thence reflected on the limbs—as when the retina of a wolf is stimulated33 by the image of a sheep, and the spring of the wolf upon the sheep follows as a “purely mechanical consequence—the whole process has from first to last been physical.” Unless the term physical is here used to designate the objective sequence, as contemplated35 by an onlooker36, who likens the process to the sequence observable in a machine, I should say that from first to last the process has been not physical, but vital, involving among its essential conditions the peculiarly vital factor named Sensibility. The process taking place in the wolf’s organism is one which involves conditions never found in purely physical processes. We may indeed analytically37 disregard these. We may view the process in its purely physical relations, or in its purely chemical relations, or in its purely mathematical (mechanical) relations. But this is the artifice39 of the analytical38 method. In reality the process is no one of these, for it is all of these; it is a process in a living organism, and depends on conditions only found in living organisms—nay, in this particular case the process depends on conditions only found in organisms like that of the wolf; for the image of the sheep will stimulate34 the brain of a goat, horse, or elephant without producing any such movement in the organism.
18. The importance of this point must excuse my reiteration40 of it. We must make clear to ourselves that the organism is in its objective aspect a physiological367 mechanism, in its subjective32 aspect a psychological mechanism: in both aspects it is to be radically43 demarcated from all inorganic mechanisms. In it the combination and co-ordination of movements involve conditions never present in machines; among these conditions, there are combinations and co-ordinations of Sensibility, which, although material processes on the objective side, are processes believed to be only present in organisms. We have the strongest reasons for concluding that every feeling, every change in Sensibility, has its correlative material process in the organism—is, in short, only the subjective aspect of the objective organic change. What in Physiology44 is called Co-ordination and has reference to movements, in Psychology may be called Logic42, having reference to feelings. But be this latter point accepted or rejected, the one point which admits of no dispute is that an organism is radically distinguishable from every inorganic mechanism in that it acquires through the very exercise of its primary constitution, a new constitution with new powers. Its adjustment is a changing and developing mechanism. That is to say, a machine, however complex its structure, is constructed once for all, and this primary constitution is final, the adjustment of parts remaining unaltered; and although by exercise the machine may come to work more easily, with less friction45, it never comes to work differently, to readjust its parts, and develop new capabilities46. It has no historical factor manifest in its functions. It has no experience. It reacts at last as at first. How different the organism! This has not only variable adjustments due to internal fluctuations47, it has experience which develops new parts, and new adjustments of old parts. Every organism has its primary constitution in the adjustment of parts peculiar to the species; it has also its secondary or modified constitution, in the adjustment which has been more or less altered by368 individual experiences; it has, thirdly, its temporary constitution in the variable adjustment due to the varying state of tension which results from varying stimulation48.
19. A word on each. There is a structural49 disposition50 of the parts which is common to large groups of organisms, so that a corresponding similarity is observable in the reactions of these organisms. Thus all quadrupeds use their limbs for locomotion51 in very similar ways; birds use their wings for flight in similar ways. All vertebrates swallow their food, defend themselves, shrink when hurt, etc., in ways that are very similar. In so far as their organizations are alike, their actions and reactions are alike. In so far as their organizations differ, their actions and reactions differ. The goose and the vulture are alike in the main lines of structure; still more alike are duck and hen; yet, owing to certain unlike characters of structure, they manifest some marked differences in action and reaction: the goose will starve in the presence of food which the vulture gluttonously52 devours53, and the vulture will refuse the vegetable food which the goose devours; the duck plunges54 into the water, the hen not only refuses to enter it, but is greatly agitated55 when she sees the ducklings she has hatched plunging56 into it. That peculiar instincts, habits, and feelings are rigorously determined57 by peculiarities58 in the organism, no one doubts, when animals are in question. If this is less obvious in the case of men, the reason is that there the influence of other factors somewhat masks the operation of the primary constitution—these factors are the modified and the temporary constitutions. Yet even in man it is true to say that his feelings and actions are the result of his organization, native and acquired.
20. No two men are organized in all respects alike. There are individual variations in structure, both native and acquired. These may be too slight to be appreciable369 by any other test than the difference of reaction under similar external stimuli59; but the variations in the sensibility to music, color, temperature, sexual influence, moral influence, etc., betray corresponding differences in the organisms. Any one variation in structure, seemingly trivial, may be the origin of well-marked diversity in physical and moral characters. Compare the bull with the ox, or the predatory aggressive eagle with the cowardly vulture. Nor are the temporary modifications60 to be overlooked. Antoine Cros mentions the case of a patient, a young girl, suffering from congested liver and spleen, which of course altered the state of her blood, and thus for a time modified her constitution. Her moral character was greatly altered by it. She ceased to feel any affection for father or mother; would play with her doll, but could not be brought to show any delight in it; could not be drawn62 out of her apathetic63 sadness. Things which previously64 had made her shriek65 with laughter, now left her uninterested. Her temper changed, became capricious and violent.207 Congestion66 of the lungs, if unaccompanied by congestion of the liver, never produces such effects, because not thus altering the blood. The effects of liver congestion are familiar. Cros cites the case of a magistrate67 whose liver was enlarged, and whose skin showed a markedly bilious68 aspect, and in whom all affection seemed to be dead: he did not exhibit any perversion69 or violence, only want of emotive reaction. If he went to the theatre he could not feel the slightest pleasure in it. The thoughts of his home, his absent wife and children, were, he declared, as unaffecting to him as a problem in Euclid.
21. Owing to the recognized dependence70 of peculiar instincts and modes of reaction on peculiarities of structure, comparative anatomists are quite confident, when they370 find a portion of a skull71 with two occipital condyles, that the animal to which this skull belonged had red blood-corpuscles without nuclei72, and (if a female) suckled its young. If in that fragment of skull there remain a single tooth, it will prove that the animal was carnivorous or herbivorous, and had, or had not, retractile claws. From such data a general conclusion may be formed as to the instincts and habits of the animal. The data disclose much of the primary constitution, that is to say, the mechanism which the animal brought with it into the world, ready prepared to react in definite ways on being stimulated. The connate mechanism has correlative tendencies of reaction. Some of these tendencies are inevitably73 called into play by external conditions, and they continue unaltered amid great varieties of circumstances, provided none of these variations directly deprive them of their appropriate stimulation. Such tendencies of the connate mechanism are styled automatic (an unfortunate metaphor74, which has led to the theory of Automatism), and include, besides the visceral reactions, the more complex reactions of winking76, breathing, swallowing, coughing, flying, walking, etc. It is true that we learn to walk, and learn to wink75, whereas the other actions require no tentative efforts directed by experience; but the mechanism of all these actions is already laid down in the primary constitution, and is inevitably called into play.
22. The instincts also belong to the connate mechanism, and in the course of the normal experience of the animal inevitably come into play; but, unlike the automatic tendencies of breathing, swallowing, and coughing, they are capable of modification61, or even suppression, by alterations77 in the course of individual experience. The connate mechanism of the cat determines its dread78 of water, and its enmity to the dog and mouse; yet a cat will by the modifications of certain experiences become as371 ready as an otter79 to take to the water, and become so fond of a dog that she will allow him to tend upon her kittens; and so indifferent to the mouse that she will let it run over her body. All this implies a new adjustment in the nervous centres, with new modes of reaction on sensory80 impressions: the inherited mechanism has been modified. I need not dwell on the profound modifications which the human inherited mechanism undergoes in the course of experience—how social influences and moral and religious teachings redirect, or even suppress, many primary tendencies; so that “moral habits” become organized, and replace the original tendencies of the organism. These, when organized, become the inevitable81 modes of reaction, and are sometimes called secondarily automatic. It is important to recognize this organization of experiences, this acquisition of a secondary or modified constitution, if we would explain psychological processes by physiological41 processes. Thus the processes of Logic are automatic, they belong to the connate primary mechanism, and their action is inevitable, invariable. The elements of a judgment82, like the elements of a perception, may vary, and we therefore say that one judgment is false, and one perception incomplete; but the judging process is always the same, and the perceiving process is always the same. We may breathe pure air or impure83 air, but the breathing process is in each case the same; and judgment is as automatic as breathing, not to be altered, not to be suppressed. Again, the moral terror at wickedness of any recognized kind is as automatic as the instinctive84 terror at danger. The one has its roots in the primary disposition called love of approbation85 and its correlative dread of disapprobation: the social instinct. The other has its root in the primary disposition called “instinct of self-preservation,” which is really the reflex shrinking from pain: the physiological instinct.
372 23. Besides the connate and acquired mechanism, we have now to consider the temporary and fluctuating adjustments which represent the statical condition of the organism at each moment. The automatism of the primary constitution is such that previous experience and conscious effort are not needed; nor will any experience or any effort alter the mode of reaction. If a strong light falls on the eye, the iris86 contracts; if the eyeball is dry, the eyelid87 drops; if sound-waves beat upon the tympanum, the stapedius muscle contracts; if the lining88 of the throat be tickled89, the muscles involved in coughing or in vomiting91 contract. No experience is necessary for these actions, some of which are so complicated that if we had to learn them, as we learn far simpler actions, the organism would perish before the power was attained92. Yet all of these presuppose a certain normal state of the mechanism, any considerable variation in which will modify or suppress them.
24. Secondarily automatic actions are those which have been acquired through experiences that have modified the organism, and produced a new adjustment of parts. We learn to shield the eyes against a strong glare of light by raising the hand; by winking we learn to shield the eye against an approaching body; we also learn to turn the head in the direction of a sound, and to thrust away with our hands the object that is irritating our skin. Experience has been necessary for all these actions, and has finally organized the tendencies to perform them, so that the reaction is invariable, inevitable, unless controlled by the will. If you tickle90 my throat, I may, or may not, push aside your hand; but if the inside of my throat be tickled, I must cough. Here we see the difference between the automatic and secondarily automatic actions. The second being due to individual experience, are more or less controllable; and whether they are or are not373 controlled depends on the condition of the nerve-centres at the moment. You may tickle my throat, or irritate my skin, without causing any movement of my hands to thwart93 you, either because my nerve-centres are preoccupied94 by other stimulations, and I am not conscious of the irritation95, or because I do not choose to thwart you.
25. It should be added that some secondarily automatic actions have become so firmly organized that we can only with great difficulty interfere96 with them. Others never enter into consciousness, and are therefore often supposed to be purely mechanical. The movement of the eye towards the brightest light, and the convergence of the axes of both eyes, are reflexes which, although involuntary and unconscious, are the products of education. They do not belong to the connate constitution, although they are so inevitably acquired by experience that they belong to every normal child. At first the infant stares with a blank gaze, and its eyes, though moving under the stimulus98 of light, move incoherently; the axes never converge97 except by accident. Very early, however, the infant’s eyes are observed to follow the movements of a bright light; and at last they acquire so certain and rapid a power of adjustment that the eyes shift from spot to spot, always “fixing” the object by bringing the most sensitive part of the retina to bear on it. The incoherent movements have become precisely regulated movements. It is the same with speech. The vocal99 organs are exercised in an incoherent babble100. By degrees these movements become regulated so as to respond definitely to definite stimuli, and words are formed, then sentences, till finally fluent speech becomes in a great degree automatic. The vocal muscles respond to an auditory stimulus, and the child repeats the word it has heard, just as the eye-muscles respond to a retinal stimulus. That we acquire the power of converging101 the374 axes, and accommodating the lens to near objects, is not only proved by observation of infants, but also by cases of disease. After the reflex mechanism has been long established, so that it acts with inevitable precision, a slight paralysis102 of one of the muscles has the effect of making all objects appear in a different position; the patient trying to touch an object, then always moves his hand on one side of it. Von Graefe relates the case of a stonebreaker who always struck his hand with the hammer when he tried to strike the stone. Yet this very man learned to accommodate his movements to the new impressions; so that if his paralysis had been cured, his modified mechanism would have been ill adapted to the new conditions, and he would once more have struck his hand instead of the stone.
26. This digression on the native and acquired dispositions103 of the organism, while it has brought into strong light all that can be cited in favor of regarding animal bodies as mechanisms, and their actions as the direct consequences of mechanical adjustments, has also made conspicuous104 the radical difference between an organism and a machine. We cannot too emphatically insist on this radical difference. Between the group of conditions involved in the structure and action of a machine, and the group of conditions involved in the structure and action of an organism, there are contrasts as broad as any that can be named. To overlook these in taking account solely105 of the conditions common to both groups is a serious error. On such grounds we might insist that a tiger is a violet, because both are organisms.
The biologist will admit that an organism is a mechanism, and (in so far as its bodily structure is concerned) a material mechanism. All the actions of this structure are therefore mechanical, in the two senses of the term: first, as being the actions of material adjustments; secondly,375 as being movements, and thereby106 included under the general laws of motion represented in Mechanics; the abstract laws of movement for an organic body are not different from the abstract laws of movement for an inorganic body. So far we have been considering the abstract relations only. No sooner do we consider the phenomena as concrete wholes, than we find great diversity in the modes of production of the movements in organisms and machines. Now it is precisely the modes of production which have interest for us. We never understand a phenomenon so as to gain any practical control over it, or any theoretical illumination from it, unless we have mastered some of its conditions; our knowledge of these conditions is the measure of our power.
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1
incessant
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| adj.不停的，连续的 | |
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recurrence
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| n.复发，反复，重现 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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physicists
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| 物理学家( physicist的名词复数 ) | |
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momentum
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| n.动力，冲力，势头；动量 | |
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affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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decomposition
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| n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃 | |
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physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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secretion
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| n.分泌 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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volition
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| n.意志；决意 | |
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denotation
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| n.（明示的）意义；指示 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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inorganic
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| adj.无生物的；无机的 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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mechanisms
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| n.机械( mechanism的名词复数 )；机械装置；[生物学] 机制；机械作用 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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lucid
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| adj.明白易懂的，清晰的，头脑清楚的 | |
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ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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piston
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| n.活塞 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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pervading
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的现在分词 ) | |
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cardinal
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| n.(天主教的)红衣主教；adj.首要的，基本的 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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fluctuation
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| n.(物价的)波动，涨落；周期性变动；脉动 | |
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subjectively
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| 主观地； 臆 | |
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subjective
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| a.主观(上)的，个人的 | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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onlooker
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| n.旁观者，观众 | |
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analytically
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| adv.有分析地，解析地 | |
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analytical
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| adj.分析的；用分析法的 | |
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artifice
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| n.妙计，高明的手段；狡诈，诡计 | |
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reiteration
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| n. 重覆, 反覆, 重说 | |
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physiological
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| adj.生理学的，生理学上的 | |
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logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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radically
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| ad.根本地，本质地 | |
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physiology
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| n.生理学，生理机能 | |
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friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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capabilities
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| n.能力( capability的名词复数 )；可能；容量；[复数]潜在能力 | |
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fluctuations
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| 波动，涨落，起伏( fluctuation的名词复数 ) | |
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stimulation
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| n.刺激，激励，鼓舞 | |
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structural
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| adj.构造的，组织的，建筑（用）的 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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locomotion
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| n.运动，移动 | |
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gluttonously
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devours
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| 吞没( devour的第三人称单数 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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plunges
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| n.跳进，投入vt.使投入，使插入，使陷入vi.投入，跳进，陷入v.颠簸( plunge的第三人称单数 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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agitated
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| adj.被鼓动的，不安的 | |
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plunging
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| adj.跳进的，突进的v.颠簸( plunge的现在分词 )；暴跌；骤降；突降 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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stimuli
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| n.刺激（物） | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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modification
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| n.修改，改进，缓和，减轻 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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apathetic
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| adj.冷漠的，无动于衷的 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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65
shriek
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| v./n.尖叫，叫喊 | |
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congestion
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| n.阻塞，消化不良 | |
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magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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bilious
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| adj.胆汁过多的；易怒的 | |
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perversion
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| n.曲解；堕落；反常 | |
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dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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skull
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| n.头骨；颅骨 | |
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nuclei
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| n.核 | |
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inevitably
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| adv.不可避免地；必然发生地 | |
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metaphor
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| n.隐喻，暗喻 | |
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75
wink
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| n.眨眼，使眼色，瞬间；v.眨眼，使眼色，闪烁 | |
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76
winking
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| n.瞬眼，目语v.使眼色( wink的现在分词 )；递眼色（表示友好或高兴等）；（指光）闪烁；闪亮 | |
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alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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otter
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| n.水獭 | |
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sensory
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| adj.知觉的，感觉的，知觉器官的 | |
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inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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82
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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83
impure
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| adj.不纯净的，不洁的；不道德的，下流的 | |
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84
instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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iris
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| n.虹膜，彩虹 | |
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eyelid
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| n.眼睑，眼皮 | |
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lining
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| n.衬里，衬料 | |
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tickled
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| （使）发痒( tickle的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）愉快，逗乐 | |
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tickle
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| v.搔痒，胳肢；使高兴；发痒；n.搔痒，发痒 | |
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vomiting
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| 吐 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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thwart
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| v.阻挠，妨碍，反对；adj.横(断的) | |
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preoccupied
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| adj.全神贯注的，入神的；被抢先占有的；心事重重的v.占据（某人）思想，使对…全神贯注，使专心于( preoccupy的过去式) | |
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95
irritation
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| n.激怒，恼怒，生气 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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converge
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| vi.会合；聚集，集中；(思想、观点等)趋近 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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babble
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| v.含糊不清地说，胡言乱语地说，儿语 | |
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101
converging
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| adj.收敛[缩]的，会聚的，趋同的v.（线条、运动的物体等）会于一点( converge的现在分词 )；（趋于）相似或相同；人或车辆汇集；聚集 | |
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paralysis
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| n.麻痹(症)；瘫痪(症) | |
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103
dispositions
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| 安排( disposition的名词复数 )； 倾向； （财产、金钱的）处置； 气质 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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105
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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106
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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