1. There floats in the lower strata5 of the atmosphere in all regions of the earth, but in very various proportions, for reasons already explained, a poison or poisons, generated by the processes which nature adopts for the destruction of past generations, and the reconstruction6 of those to come; the destruction of the aged7, the worn-out, the nearly extinguished; the reconstruction of the organisms springing into life, to occupy the place of those that were! Whether the poison be one or many; whether it be a single species or one of a natural family, does not affect the general conclusions. The diversity of its effects is no proof of diversity in its essential nature or even origin; the living principle is supposed to be of one nature everywhere and for ever; yet see how varied8 are the results of this principle in moulding the vegetable and animal worlds; how slight are the modifications9 even in organic elements, which, when called into play, give rise to the most astonishing and unexpected diversity of results. Why should it not happen, then, with the poison, influence, or thing we call malaria, which, modified by a chemical action too subtle for the scientific man to observe, may yet, being so modified, give rise to an intermittent10 or a remittent, a plague, a cholera11, a diphtherite, a scarlatina, a typhus, or a small-pox? Where did so many poisons come from? Whence came the murrains, the vine-plague, the potato-destroying poison, which was not at all new, neither was it confined to the potato? Whence came the pestilences12 which destroyed the ancient world? which exterminated13 at once whole species and genera now extinct? Of one thing we may be assured, they did not die a natural death.
2. This poison, whatever it may be, floats in the lower regions of the atmosphere, supported therein by the gaseous14 products of fermentation, and more especially by the ammonia now proved to exist everywhere in the atmosphere. It is the product, in fact, of the slow combustion16 perpetually going on in the air, the earth, the waters, wherever, in fact, animal or vegetable organisms are to be decomposed17. We call it putrefaction18; it is in truth a ferment15, and the fermentable19 matter, that which gives rise to the ferment, is the immediate20 agent as well as the result (for it is the nature of all ferments21 to reproduce their process) of this fermentation, accumulated in the lower regions of the atmosphere. Increased to the dangerous point by men’s imprudence or ignorance, quickened by epidemic22 influences with whose nature we are of course wholly unacquainted, and absorbed by the living tissues, it excites that fermentation, that tendency to putrescence in the living blood to whose results medical men have given so many appellations23. At times it is called ague; at times remittent fever; now it is small-pox; and now a fatal diphtherite. To the transit24 of ferments through the air and to their inhalation by man, I ascribe the diseases usually called zymotic. In ancient primitive25 times, when physicians were rare,63 and men did not interfere26, a poison thus absorbed ran its course from incubation to specific fermentation, with all its results, in a given time, terminating in a crisis which might be calculated and determined27; and which might prove fatal or at once remove the disease. A violent perspiration28, a severe diarrh?a, a specific and contagious29 eruption30 on the surface of the body, proved and effected the elimination31 of the poison from the system. The ferment had done its work; it had altered the mass of the blood, and the products of the slow combustion (putrescence, rottenness, fermentation) were discharged by the secretions33, according to circumstances peculiar34 to the constitution of the individual: as out of the same materials serpents elaborate poisons of very different powers and qualities, so the ferment, passing through various constitutions, gives rise to various results. It pervades35 the air and clings to it, nor can it be avoided but by a change of place of residence;64 storms may, and no doubt do, affect it, but they frequently fail in dislodging the poison; intervening wide-spread oceans fail to interrupt its course;65 and as regards the caprice exhibited in its attacks, we have only to reflect on the number of elements, vital, atmospheric36, social, and chemical, involved in its full maturescence. Our doubts on all such matters originate probably in the coarse chemical theories and still coarser chemical experiments which prevailed about thirty years ago, and from their influence, from which men’s minds have not as yet escaped. The atmosphere was declared to contain a few wide-spread gaseous elements, and to be unalterable; the air of towns, of theatres, of large heated apartments, crowded with people, was boldly asserted by chemists still alive to be eudiometrically perfect.
§ 1. Discovery of foreign bodies, the remains37 of animal and vegetable life, and therefore fermentable, in the air floating over canals, ditches, marshes38, &c.—Scientific chemists, as well as the professors of the conjectural39 art, are occasionally behind the knowledge of the careful, observing, unprejudiced practical men of the day.66 Experience taught me, whilst engaged in other inquiries40, that the sulphuretted hydrogen gas arising from the waters of the canals of Holland is quite sufficient to spoil cottons printed with nitrate of lead, used for dyeing yellow with the chromate of potass. The waters of these canals hold this gas in solution in a certain sense, but from May to September inclusive, the gas escapes during the night in great abundance.
At this time vapours arising from the waters and floating over the adjoining grounds, were found to contain minute portions of aquatic41 plants mingled42 with the spores43 of fungi44 in vast abundance, together with fragments of a membranous45 and gelatinous substance about to be mentioned. To these must be added the remains of infusoria not to be detected in dried specimens46.
The injurious effects of water holding such substances, gaseous and solid, in solution, we overcome by boiling and passing the steam through (heated) iron pipes, and re-converting the steam into water. By this process we get rid of the injurious effects of these foreign matters, gaseous and solid, held in a kind of solution by the water, in as far, at least, as they affect the colours used in dyeing.
During these examinations of the waters themselves, it was distinctly observed that the infusoria and testaceous mollusca, microscopic47 and otherwise, with which such waters abound48, were developed in glutinous49 membranes50 attached to the aquatic herbs abounding52 in these waters; in short, these membranes seem to be the matrix for the growth, nourishment53, and production (using the term in a limited sense) of these organized beings; they form an essential condition of their existence.
The plants themselves were now washed in distilled54 water, and the animal products were the semivalve and bivalve shells of which I have preserved many specimens. The semivalve belong to the natural families Buccinum, Lynceus, Helix, and Planorbis; the bivalve to the Cardiac?. The semivalves are the most abundant. By filtering the water which remained after the shells had been removed, innumerable minute particles like dust were discovered; these particles were ascertained55 by the aid of the microscope to be mainly composed of minute fragments of aquatic plants and of the spores of fungi; to these must, no doubt, be added, although not visible when dried, the remains of zoophytes, and of the glutinous membranes forming the matrix of animal aquatic life.
I now endeavoured to obtain the glutinous membrane51 or matrix in which these testaceous mollusca were obviously developed, apart and distinct from the animals themselves. To attain56 this desirable point we filled a glass receiver with water containing the aquatic plants and shells, and the gelatinous membrane already spoken of. The receiver was now inverted57 upon a plate, and water poured into the plate to the depth of half an inch.
In a few days the receiver became filled with gas, forcing the water downwards58 into the plate on which the receiver rested; and although after the first day we could not discover any of the gelatinous membranes in the lower part of the receiver, yet that in the plate became like a flaky jelly, attaching itself to blades of grass or leaves. The surface exposed to the atmosphere became dry and brittle59, and in this state resembled thin layers of gum; the substance thus desiccated strongly resembled jelly.
The glutinous membrane of which frequent mention has been made above, is of a very viscid nature, and when combined with any animal substance in a state of transition or fermentation, it is poisonous. It is, I believe, generally viewed as the matrix for the development of the ova of these shell fish, and considered as a product or secretion32 of the parent. Into this question I enter not, leaving it, if it be one, to others.
On exposing for a few days some of the larger testaceous mollusca alive to the atmosphere of the room at a temperature varying from 65° to 70° Fahr., strong proofs were obtained that ammonia was produced in the interior of the shell confined therein by the membrane called operculum, sealing, as it were, the aperture60 into the shell hermetically. On puncturing61 this membrane the presence of ammoniacal gas could be distinctly traced by the odour.
I submit to the consideration of professed62 physiologists63 the following questions:—1st. What are the effects likely to result to man from the inhalation of these microscopic and gaseous products in a state of decomposition64, they being certainly present in the vapours arising from the waters of canals, ditches, &c., in many countries, especially during the nights of spring, summer, and autumn? 2nd. What are the evil effects likely to arise to man from the use of such waters as drink, or when employed for culinary purposes? Lastly: As the gelatinous membranes alluded65 to are the nidus of various forms of organic life, and contain those forms, developed and undeveloped, occasionally in a state of decomposition, to which of the two forms of life, animal or vegetable, or to both, is to be ascribed the deleterious effects on man, and ascribed by physicians to an unknown poison called Malaria, designated by them as “a poison, an influence, a miasm, a thing unknown”? Ferments and putrescence are not “things unknown:” let us adhere to facts.
§ 2. Thus the principle of wasting away by the action of the atmosphere, of the rotting of vegetable and animal substances, first developed by the illustrious Liebig, opened up to me the path to that theory which seems to reconcile the conflicting observations of pathologists,—that vegetable and animal matters do ferment or rot, and that in this state of rottenness they are carried through the air, was with me no longer a matter of doubt; next came the question, as to the effects of such matters on man when inhaled66 by respiration67 and conveyed directly into the living, circulating blood, that most complex of all fluids, that mysterious compound out of which nature constructs the animal world.
This slow wasting takes place in any damp place under ground, and the ferments assume the form of vapour when such places happen to be warmer than the open air; it is in this state that the odour is so sensible to us after a hot dry day or during cold nights. There is no smell in rainy or damp weather. It is in the spring and autumn months when ferments from slow combustion abound, aided by the amount of heat and moisture which then prevail, and by the floating of plants. The poison thus generated is known to be the product of a ferment, and like many such products, possesses the quality of fermenting68 other organic compounds with which it may come in contact. Introduced into the living system of man, it finds in certain individuals the material already disposed to pass into fermentation. It incubates, and this incubation is measured as to time by a variety of circumstances I need not enumerate69. In cold countries the incubation is slow, extending over many months; not that the ferment differs, but its action is modified by the existing condition of the accessories to its action and power. The ferment introduced into the blood in autumn may not show its full action on the living fluids until the following spring, or early in summer: in hot countries it is different; there the ferment, aided by numerous adjuncts, acts almost immediately; fever sets in, causing violent reaction of the conservative powers of nature; delirium70, coma71, vomiting72, death. The mass of the blood has undergone a change in all its constituents73, and dissolution and putrefaction are swift in reducing the frame, even whilst life is still present, to that state to which all that lives must come at last; whilst the physician loses himself in vague theories of an “unknown poison”—a malaria, a something not strictly74 a gas, a matter or influence differing from all chemical or other agents known, the scientific chemist steps in, and shows that the subtle matter they so anxiously endeavour to discover, is a process constantly going on before their eyes; a chemical process, universal; the process, in short, on which in a great measure depends the disposal of the dead and effete75 remains of the organic world; the growth, the nourishment, the renovator76 of each successive generation of the same world.
§ 3. It may be now fully77 admitted that ammonia is the active principle or stimulus78 to vegetable life, as shown by the extraordinary growth of plants in warm damp climates; in these malaria—as we may still call the poison so developed—exists to the greatest extent, as in the Pontine Marshes, by the banks of the Po, Ferrara and Bologna. From various experiments and observations, I have been led to the conclusion that the ammonia constantly present in the atmosphere, and derived79 from several sources,67 is the chief cause of the activity which the ferment, or poison, displays under different and varying circumstances. There prevails, in truth, an excess of ammonia in such an atmosphere, resulting from the nitrogen uniting with hydrogen; from the decomposition of vegetable matter carrying decayed animal matter along with it; and from the ammonia always existing in the spawn80 and in the matter of the shells of infusoria. All my researches into the effects which the various gases have upon animal tissues, showed ammonia to be the most destructive; in fact, no animal tissue can resist complete decomposition by caustic81 ammonia. I conclude, therefore, that vegetable and animal matter in a state of fermentation, and mixed with ammonia, is the cause or essence of that destructive power which physicians ascribe to malaria. Should this fermentable matter pass in a concentrated state into the torrent82 of the circulation, the globules of the blood are destroyed, and become black; the person is in the cold stage of fever; next, the vegetable matter ferments, causing the hot stage. No one in Holland has any doubt as to the origin of this power, but ascribes it uniformly to the draining of some lake; and it amounts almost to a demonstration83 that the air under such circumstances is poisonous or injurious to health. It was even foretold84 by several writers that fevers would result from draining the lake of Haarlem, as took place in the years 1608, 1641, 1727, 1779, from draining various polders.68
If the principles I have announced be correct, the extreme impropriety—not to use a stronger phrase—of carrying on excavations85 or other extensive works on the muddy banks of rivers, in marshy86 or swampy87 forests, during the summer months, must be obvious to all reflecting persons. No work should be done in such places, or in ponds, after the month of April, for it is warm dry weather that sets malaria afloat. But if this ferment—which we may strictly call malaria, as producing a malarious88 condition of the air—be, as I apprehend89 it is, the cause of fever, why should not medical men direct their attention more earnestly to the question in how far such a fermentation of the blood may be met by the employment of substances known to resist and counteract90 fermentation? Are physicians agreed on the nature of fevers, and the best means of curing them?69
Nothing can be more interesting, in a natural history point of view, than to watch the results upon large bodies of water, of attempts, more or less successful, to complete their drainage. Thus during the operations carried on for this purpose at Haarlem, there sprung up in the dry places of the more elevated parts an extraordinary quantity of plants and herbs, which were not seen in the country before they flowered and sent millions of seeds with their diminutive91 rocket, silky tails into the air. They were too minute to be seen upon grass, but the footpaths92 were covered with them, and a current of wind might carry them to distant regions, as the sand is carried from the coast of Africa into the track of the Brazilian packets, to such an extent as to make it uncomfortable to walk on deck. It is by no means, therefore, improbable that those errant seeds came from a foreign land, the native produce of other countries. Continuing my observations into the transit of seeds, I have found them to be the cause of shallow canals in England being full of heretofore unknown water-plants, to the extent of impeding93 navigation.
It is mentioned in the “Kosmos” of Humboldt, that the dust resulting from eruptions94 of the volcanic95 mountains in South America was observed in Spain. But if currents of wind thus carry seeds and other matters hundreds of miles through the air, no one can be surprised that the aquatic plants above alluded to floated to England through the air, from Holland; these plants, new to the land of their accidental adoption96, bring with them a new corresponding animal life; in due time they come to maturity97 and die, and now Nature steps in to take up the task, and complete her work; her process is simple in appearance, most complex in its results: a malarious air—malarious at least to man—appears, as it may be, for the first time in the district, ascribed by medical men to every cause but the true one. In their anxiety to discover a cause, they fix on some antiquated98 drain, or cesspool, or ditch, by the margins99 of which many generations of a stout100 peasantry had lived and died; or they dive into the pump-well, and triumphantly101 exhibit infusoria, not unlikely engaged at the very moment in purifying the water: it never seems to have occurred to them that ferments only appear in certain combinations of the air—under circumstances which only occasionally occur, and that (which is most lamentable102 to think of, as in the case of London and the Thames) the evil is most frequently of man’s creation.70
The operations of nature when left to herself never vary; they may always be calculated on, foretold, anticipated; on this assured and irrefutable fact all science rests. It is only when man interferes103 and modifies the elements at work that nature seems to alter her processes; a disturbing agent has been thrust into the machinery104, and the mischief105 it effects must either be counteracted106 or entirely107 overcome. So long as the Lake of Haarlem was a lake, or mere108, so long were its banks healthy; but drain it partially109, and you must be prepared for the result. There is no middle course; that which was once a lake or sea cannot be left in the condition of a putrid110, imperfectly-drained, fermenting mass of mud, teeming111 with animal and vegetable life, and with a material for which oxygen is the natural ferment; it must be arrested by the hands which drained, or attempted to drain it, and converted into a healthy pasture-land or a wheat-field; if left to nature, centuries might elapse before that which was once a sea would become a healthy forest or natural meadow, during which period man, should he persist in residing on its banks, must undergo the penalty of his own want of knowledge.
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1
perused
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| v.读（某篇文字）( peruse的过去式和过去分词 )；（尤指）细阅；审阅；匆匆读或心不在焉地浏览（某篇文字） | |
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explicitly
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| ad.明确地，显然地 | |
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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malaria
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| n.疟疾 | |
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strata
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| n.地层（复数）；社会阶层 | |
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reconstruction
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| n.重建，再现，复原 | |
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aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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modifications
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| n.缓和( modification的名词复数 )；限制；更改；改变 | |
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intermittent
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| adj.间歇的，断断续续的 | |
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cholera
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| n.霍乱 | |
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pestilences
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| n.瘟疫， （尤指）腺鼠疫( pestilence的名词复数 ) | |
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exterminated
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| v.消灭，根绝( exterminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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gaseous
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| adj.气体的，气态的 | |
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ferment
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| vt.使发酵；n./vt.（使）激动，（使）动乱 | |
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combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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decomposed
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| 已分解的，已腐烂的 | |
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putrefaction
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| n.腐坏，腐败 | |
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fermentable
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| adj.可发酵的，发酵性的 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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ferments
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| n.酵素( ferment的名词复数 )；激动；骚动；动荡v.（使）发酵( ferment的第三人称单数 )；（使）激动；骚动；骚扰 | |
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epidemic
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| n.流行病；盛行；adj.流行性的，流传极广的 | |
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appellations
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| n.名称，称号( appellation的名词复数 ) | |
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transit
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| n.经过，运输；vt.穿越，旋转；vi.越过 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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perspiration
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| n.汗水；出汗 | |
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contagious
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| adj.传染性的，有感染力的 | |
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eruption
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| n.火山爆发；（战争等）爆发；（疾病等）发作 | |
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elimination
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| n.排除，消除，消灭 | |
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secretion
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| n.分泌 | |
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secretions
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| n.分泌（物）( secretion的名词复数 ) | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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atmospheric
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| adj.大气的，空气的；大气层的；大气所引起的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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conjectural
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| adj.推测的 | |
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inquiries
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| n.调查( inquiry的名词复数 )；疑问；探究；打听 | |
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aquatic
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| adj.水生的，水栖的 | |
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42
mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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43
spores
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| n.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的名词复数 )v.（细菌、苔藓、蕨类植物）孢子( spore的第三人称单数 ) | |
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fungi
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| n.真菌，霉菌 | |
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membranous
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| adj.膜的，膜状的 | |
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46
specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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47
microscopic
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| adj.微小的，细微的，极小的，显微的 | |
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48
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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glutinous
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| adj.粘的，胶状的 | |
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membranes
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| n.（动物或植物体内的）薄膜( membrane的名词复数 )；隔膜；（可起防水、防风等作用的）膜状物 | |
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membrane
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| n.薄膜，膜皮，羊皮纸 | |
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52
abounding
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| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
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53
nourishment
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| n.食物，营养品；营养情况 | |
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54
distilled
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| adj.由蒸馏得来的v.蒸馏( distil的过去式和过去分词 )；从…提取精华 | |
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55
ascertained
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| v.弄清，确定，查明( ascertain的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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56
attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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57
inverted
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| adj.反向的，倒转的v.使倒置，使反转( invert的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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58
downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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59
brittle
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| adj.易碎的；脆弱的；冷淡的；(声音)尖利的 | |
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60
aperture
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| n.孔，隙，窄的缺口 | |
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puncturing
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| v.在（某物）上穿孔( puncture的现在分词 )；刺穿（某物）；削弱（某人的傲气、信心等）；泄某人的气 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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physiologists
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| n.生理学者( physiologist的名词复数 )；生理学( physiology的名词复数 )；生理机能 | |
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decomposition
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| n. 分解, 腐烂, 崩溃 | |
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alluded
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| 提及，暗指( allude的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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inhaled
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| v.吸入( inhale的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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respiration
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| n.呼吸作用；一次呼吸；植物光合作用 | |
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fermenting
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| v.（使）发酵( ferment的现在分词 )；（使）激动；骚动；骚扰 | |
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enumerate
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| v.列举，计算，枚举，数 | |
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delirium
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| n. 神智昏迷,说胡话;极度兴奋 | |
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coma
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| n.昏迷，昏迷状态 | |
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vomiting
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| 吐 | |
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constituents
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| n.选民( constituent的名词复数 )；成分；构成部分；要素 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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effete
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| adj.无生产力的，虚弱的 | |
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renovator
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| 革新者 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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spawn
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| n.卵，产物，后代，结果；vt.产卵，种菌丝于，产生，造成；vi.产卵，大量生产 | |
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caustic
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| adj.刻薄的，腐蚀性的 | |
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torrent
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| n.激流，洪流；爆发，(话语等的)连发 | |
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demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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foretold
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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excavations
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| n.挖掘( excavation的名词复数 )；开凿；开凿的洞穴（或山路等）；（发掘出来的）古迹 | |
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marshy
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| adj.沼泽的 | |
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swampy
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| adj.沼泽的，湿地的 | |
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malarious
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| （患）疟疾的，（有）瘴气的 | |
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apprehend
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| vt.理解，领悟，逮捕，拘捕，忧虑 | |
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counteract
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| vt.对…起反作用，对抗，抵消 | |
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diminutive
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| adj.小巧可爱的，小的 | |
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footpaths
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| 人行小径，人行道( footpath的名词复数 ) | |
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impeding
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| a.(尤指坏事)即将发生的，临近的 | |
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eruptions
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| n.喷发，爆发( eruption的名词复数 ) | |
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volcanic
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| adj.火山的；象火山的；由火山引起的 | |
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adoption
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| n.采用，采纳，通过；收养 | |
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maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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antiquated
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| adj.陈旧的，过时的 | |
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margins
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| 边( margin的名词复数 )； 利润； 页边空白； 差数 | |
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triumphantly
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| ad.得意洋洋地；得胜地；成功地 | |
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lamentable
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| adj.令人惋惜的，悔恨的 | |
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interferes
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| vi. 妨碍，冲突，干涉 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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counteracted
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| 对抗，抵消( counteract的过去式 ) | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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partially
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| adv.部分地，从某些方面讲 | |
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putrid
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| adj.腐臭的；有毒的；已腐烂的；卑劣的 | |
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teeming
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| adj.丰富的v.充满( teem的现在分词 )；到处都是；（指水、雨等）暴降；倾注 | |
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