The measure of the vitality4 of animals may be estimated by their response to stimuli5; and their behaviour increases in variety and complexity6 as the nervous system develops. Our interpretation7 of that behaviour commonly leaves out of account the character of this responsiveness: we are apt to see proof of intelligence in acts which should be read as instinctive8. And instinct is to be regarded as a co-ordinated response to stimulus10, independent of prior experience.
The complexity of this response stands in very close relation to the structural11 complexity of the organism in which it occurs, and this because an ever-increasing number of mechanisms12 and actions must be set in motion to carry out the fulfilment of any given stimulus, as this is traced from the lower to the higher groups of animals: till at last we have to distinguish between movements that are merely reflexes, and those which are “instinctive.” The latter must be fulfilled by the former—the reflex 162actions are the agents of the instinctive. Indifferent performance in either, endangers the existence of the individual, and in some directions of the race itself.
The sexual instincts, with which alone these pages are concerned, are primarily stimulated15 and sustained by internal forces, generated, as we have already seen, by the juices of certain glands16 whose relation to the reproductive system has only recently been discovered. Though not commonly realized, and though denied by some, the sexual instincts are the dominant18 factors in the animal world. Even Man himself, the lord of Creation, knowing good and evil, cannot escape their overmastering rule. Commonly he is by no means inclined to rebel against this control But there be some who, in their arrogance19, imagine that its overthrow20 is an end to be desired. Having scaled some slight intellectual eminence21 they fondly imagine this feat22 was accomplished23 by virtue24 of some spiritual grace of their own cultivation25, and call to their fellow-men to emulate26 their example. But such preceptors are labouring under a strange delusion27: they are suffering from a disease they wot not of, a “Disharmony,” as Metschnikoff calls it, a disease which blinds their perception of the motive28 power which has given them all that they believe themselves to have created. For these same despised instincts are the sacred fires of our being, and when they are quenched29 all that makes us human, love, ambition, and life itself will be extinguished. If the continuance of the race be a thing to be desired it is well that the choice should not be left to us.
Truisms are sometimes trite30, and while it is a truism to say that no race can continue which does not reproduce its kind, it is more exact to say that, other things being 163equal, the race depends for its existence, primarily, on the efficient working of the sexual instincts. In the higher animals, the phenomena31 which these present are so complex that they often assume something more than a semblance32 of intelligent, purposeful behaviour. It is therefore necessary, for their right understanding, that they should be analysed in animals lower and lower in the scale of life till at last we come to the very simplest types of organisms wherein instinct can be said to play a part.
The lower we descend33 in the scale of animal life in our survey of behaviour during the reproductive period, the more the evidence seems to grow in favour of the interpretation of the Sexual selection theory adopted in these pages—the view that neither the formal displays nor the exaggerations of colour and ornament34 which so commonly accompany them, are due to female choice; a choice not necessarily conscious, but rather to be interpreted as the final abandonment to the finest performer of a number of suitors. On the contrary, this ornamentation, of whatever kind, is the expression of an intensification35 of the gland17 secretions36 which is manifested by the process of pigment37 concentration and a consequent intensification of coloration. Hand in hand with these developments it would appear goes an exaggeration of the normal movements which characterize the species when under the influence of great excitement, whether of fear or pleasure. At any rate, the displays of gaudily38 coloured and highly ornamental39 species are commonly more striking than those of sober hue40.
On this rendering41, the behaviour of Reptiles42, Amphibia and Fishes, is much more readily interpreted, and this is even truer of the more lowly groups of animals such as Spiders, Butterflies and Beetles43.
164Among the Reptiles, as among the birds and beasts, the desire to obtain territory seems to be strong. But the information to be gathered as to their behaviour in the search for mates, and after, is exceedingly small.
Sluggish44 by nature, all become animated45 under the stimulus of mate-hunger, and this is especially true of the males. As one would have expected, from what has just been said, desire is most demonstrative in brightly coloured and highly ornamented46 species. But even the dullest hued47 and most phlegmatic48 display quite surprising agility49 and animation50 under the fever of Love. Thus among the Crocodiles fierce battles are fought by rival males for the possession of some coveted51 female: and later the victor strives to dispel52 the apathy53 of his mate by caperings most undignified in a Crocodile. He will twist and turn, or rather twirl, round on the surface of his chosen pool, with head and tail raised high in air, and his capacious barrel of a body swollen54 out to bursting point. These antics are performed to the accompaniment of loud bellowings and roars heard at no other season of the year. But more than this, an appeal is made to the nose as well as to the eyes of his apathetic55 mate, for during all this parade of love he exudes56 from glands in the lower jaw57, and tail, an almost overpowering smell of musk58. At last, however, these antics have their reward, for sooner or later apathy awakens59 into interest, and interest ends in desire.
The Crocodile is colourless, or at least is monochromatic60; not so many of the Lizards, which rival the birds in the vividness of their hues61. With the birds the colours undergo no changes save such as are due to the incidence of light; with the Lizards, however, the bare 165skin is exposed and this can, as it were, be made to blush with all the colours of the rainbow. Having regard to what has been said already as to the sources of this coloration it is not surprising to note that here also the males are the more vividly62 coloured whenever the sexes differ in this particular. And further, it is among the most vividly coloured males that most animated displays take place when the endeavour is being made to excite the amorous instincts of the females.
The males of the genus Sitana are very brightly garnished63. They possess a large throat pouch64, coloured blue, black, and red when expanded, and this occurs only during moments of excitement, whether this is due to fear or pleasure. And at the same time the vividness of the coloration is greatly increased. No such secondary sexual characters are present in the female.
A variant65 on the throat pouch, of a much more striking character, is displayed by the Frilled Lizard2 (Chlamydosaurus kingi), wherein the tongue bones have become enormously elongated66 so as to project backwards67 on each side of the body almost as far as the base of the tail. With them they have carried a thin fold of skin, so that whenever the mouth is opened these bones stand out at right angles to the head and display a circular fold of skin stretched as it were on rods; or they may be compared to the ribs68 of an umbrella. The great Elizabethan frill thus formed, is displayed only during moments of great excitement, and the open mouth, at such times, is flushed with a vivid red, which, contrasting with the teeth, gives a very terrifying aspect to prospective69 enemies, and doubtless also proves a valuable asset as a “secondary sexual character.”
The display of a vividly coloured mouth during moments 166of sexual excitement, it may be remembered, occurs in some birds. Among reptiles it is a common feature. A good illustration of this is furnished by the Moustached Lizard (Phrynocephalus mystaceus), a native of Southern Russia. When violently excited it raises itself on its hind70 legs, curls and uncurls its tail, and opens its mouth to its widest extent, presenting, to our eyes, a quite fearsome aspect. This effect is immensely increased by the fact that the corners of the mouth are provided with flanges71 of skin, which at this time swell72 up into crescentic plates, the inner borders of which pass gradually into the rosy73 lining74 of the mouth, thereby75 causing it to appear much wider than it really is. So far this display has been witnessed only when the animal is under the influence of fear. But since we find that birds will make similar displays, both when under the stimulus of fear and that of sex, we may assume, with no little degree of certitude, that the same applies in the case of the reptiles, for the origin of the ornaments76 is almost certainly to be attributed to the same gland secretions which produce the secondary sexual characters of birds and beasts.
This, however, is no mere13 assumption, for we have some positive evidence as to the association of bright coloration with “courtship,” which has been furnished by Mr. Annandale, a naturalist77 of long experience and having a first-hand acquaintance with tropical life. He has given us a lively description of the courtship of the Malayan Lizard (Calotes emma). “The males,” he says, “are very pugnacious78, and change colour as they fight. At the time of courtship a curious performance is gone through by the male, the female remaining concealed79 in the foliage80 hard by. He chooses some convenient station, such as a banana-leaf, or the top of a fence, and advances slowly towards the female. His colour is then pale 167yellowish flesh colour, with a conspicuous81 dark spot on each of the gular pouches82, which are extended to their utmost. He stands upright, raising the fore-part of the body as high as possible, and nodding his head up and down. As he does so the mouth is rapidly opened and shut, but no sound is emitted. When he is driven away, caught, or killed, the dark spot disappears entirely83 from the neck.”
Plate 30.
Photo by W. Saville-Kent.
THE BEARDED LIZARD.
Paring moments of excitement the Bearded Lizard opens the mouth widely displaying a vividly coloured interior.
[Face page 166
Normally sluggish, the Lizards display, it will have been remarked, a quite surprising degree of animation when maddened by mate-hunger. Some exhibit a considerable degree of pugnacity84. In Anolis carolinensis, for example, when two males meet they face one another, bob the head up and down two or three times, expand the throat pouch, lash85 their tails from side to side, and then, worked up to the requisite86 degree of fury, rush at one another, rolling over and over and holding firmly with the teeth. The conflict generally ends in one of the combatants losing his tail, which is eaten by the victor.
The Cham?leons include among their number species which have developed quite formidable horns, recalling those of the Rhinoceros87 or, better, of the extinct Arsinoetherium, since they are placed side by side instead of one behind the other. In Owen’s Cham?leon there are three such horns, two on the forehead and a median horn on the snout, and these are borne only by the males.
The marvellous play of colour which many Lizards display is commonly attributed indifferently to “protective coloration” and to “sexual selection.” It is unlikely that both have played equally important parts in their development. If the case of certain of the 168Geckoes alone is taken, then there would seem to be no doubt but that “Natural Selection” was the agent which had determined88 their elaborations for protective purposes, and in such and similar cases this may be largely true. But the material which “Natural Selection” has worked upon has been furnished by the secretions of the sexual glands to which reference has so frequently been made already. These seem to possess a very marked tendency to contain an excitant which promotes the formation of intense pigmentation, or an excess of tissue which may assume the form of weapons of offence, or of excrescences in the form of spines89, or other ornamental features. Animals in whom this tendency to pigmentation and ornament has developed must, so to speak, obtain a licence from “Natural Selection” if they are to retain it. That is to say, if such ornament whenever it appears makes the wearer conspicuous to its enemies, or hampers90 it in escaping therefrom, or in fulfilling the ordinary avocations91 of life, then its further progress will be inhibited92, or the wearer will be exterminated93. But the tendency to produce colour, a by-product94 of the sexual gland secretions, may incidentally serve to afford it a protective garb95, and in this event its further elaboration in the required direction is assured.
In certain abnormal, sexually poisoned individuals among the human race it is well known pleasure is derived96 from flagellation. There is but one instance known to me where this obtains as a normal accompaniment of desire among the lower animals, and this occurs in one of the Painted Terrapins97 (Chrysemys picta), whose finger-nails are produced into long, whip-like ends. I had the good fortune to witness their use one day when in the 169Reptile House at the Zoological Gardens in London.
The unusual activity of a male of this species was the first thing to attract attention to his movements. Watched more closely, he was found to be dodging98 a female and making frantic99 efforts to swim round so as to oppose her path. This done, he closed up and immediately commenced to apply the bastinado to her head. The movements were so rapid that nothing more than a blurred100 image of these strange whips was visible. As soon as she escaped his attentions, he set about circumventing101 her again, and again succeeded: and this most extraordinary performance was repeated many times during my watch.
Turning to the Amphibia, the descendants of that stock which must be regarded as the ancestors of the Reptiles, the version of the sexual r?le which is adopted in these pages, that “Sexual Selection” in the older, Darwinian sense, does not exist, finds further support.
Among the tailless Batrachians—the Frogs and their kind—there is no “display” immediately preceding the act of pairing. The males seize upon the females and hold them in a close embrace which lasts for a very prolonged period, covering many days or even weeks, until the extrusion102 of the eggs, which he impregnates by successive emissions103 of the fertilizing104 element. What controls the orgasm no one has yet succeeded in discovering, but this is an important point, for it is essential that the seminal105 fluid should not be emitted until the moment the eggs are set free. The pairing act is here purely106 instinctive, as is shown by the fact that if a Frog in embrace be removed and replaced on some inanimate body, this will be treated as though it were a female.
170With the tailed Batrachians—the Newts and Salamanders—the male commonly executes a very animated display which is followed by behaviour of a quite remarkable107 character. The display, which is always associated with vivid coloration, or the development of fin-like frills along the back, takes the form of amorous writhings and other gesticulations. At times he will hit his mate with his snout, and at others he will simply rub sides with her, as if to entice108 her to respond to his advances. These evolutions may be followed by an amplexus, an embrace. In some species, however, these performances are followed by behaviour which leaves one gasping109 with astonishment110.
To begin with, there is no act of pairing, no coitus, but the male discharges a number of conical or bell-shaped “spermatophores,” each of which is crowned by a bunch of spermatozoa, the male germs necessary to ensure fertilization of the ova. These spermatophores adhere to the bottom of the stream, and are gathered up by the female, either directly, by placing herself in such a position that they can be seized by the lips of the genital opening, or by seizing the spermatophore, with its fertilizing germs, between her hind legs and pressing it home! The more one contemplates111 this extraordinary proceeding112 the more one marvels113 at the evolution of a departure from the normal sexual relations so inconceivably strange. Here one sees the purpose of the aphrodisiac in its true light. But for these facts it would have seemed certain that its primary object was to enable the male to relieve desire and at the same time to accomplish its end—the fertilization of ova—without undue114 waste. And this, in all the cases so far discussed, is possible only when the female has become inflamed115 with a like 171desire for coitus. But here the male finds relief, without more ado, by depositing the precious germs upon the ground. The display then is indeed to serve as an aphrodisiac. For the continuation of the race now rests entirely on the female. Any defect in the orderly working of her sexual appetite means the waste of the spermatozoa and the failure to effect fertilization. We cannot suppose that there is any realization116 of these facts, or any deliberate action on her part, but rather that she derives117 pleasurable feelings from the necessary passage of the spermatophore, which, probably, she recognizes by its smell.
The statement that the Frogs and their kind dispense118 with a display requires some qualification. For in the first place they, like their tailed relatives the Newts, develop secondary sexual characters, but these are of a quite peculiar119 kind. Among the Newt tribe, as has been mentioned, these characters take the form of frills and crests120 and vivid colours. They are intended to stimulate14 through the sense of sight, and arouse emotion, as a city is beflagged to welcome those it may delight to honour. The Frog tribe appeal to the musical sense, even though that music be of a barbaric kind. But, it would seem, when once the errant females have been drawn121 to the spot chosen by the males, no further aphrodisiac is used, the male simply seizing upon the female nearest at hand and, having once embraced her, she is not released again until the eggs have been extruded122 and fertilized123. To maintain his hold, the forearm is often excessively muscular, while one or more of the fingers may be armed with pads. In some cases, as with the Himalayan Rana liebigi, the inner side of the arm and each side of the breast are studded with small conical 172spines. But the absence of ornament in these cases, as with such of the Newts where there is no amorous display before embrace, is significant.
And now, as touching124 the musical performances of these troubadours. These commence in the early spring. With many species, as with our Common Frog (Rana temporaria) nothing more than loud croakings are attained125. But with others this “music” is enormously increased in volume by resonators in the form of air-sacs or wind-bags. We may surely, with some show of certainty, liken this “music” to the song of birds, and assign its primary purpose to the same cause—a device to advertise their presence to wandering females seeking mates. That birds sing after mates have been found, and later, is no doubt due to a general feeling of “fitness,” which finds expression in what has become the usual mode for such emotional states. Most people must have heard the spring concerts of our Common Frog; but these are incomparably surpassed in volume by the Edible126 Frog and the Bull Frog, which are provided with large, globular, inflatable, air-sacs in the throat, serving as voice-resonators. Such performances, however, are mere bawlings compared with some other species, which mew like cats, or bark like dogs. The most famous of all is the Brazilian “Ferreiro” or “Smith” (Hylodes faber), whose voice is one of the most characteristic sounds to be heard in Tropical South America. “Fancy,” says Dr. Gadow, “the noise of a mallet127, slowly and regularly beaten upon a copper128 plate, and you will have a pretty good idea of the concert given generally by several individuals at the same time and with slight variations of tone and intensity129.” When seized, the performer utters a “loud and shrill130, most startling cry, somewhat similar to that 173of a wounded cat.” Another, a Paraguayan species, Phryniaxus nigricans, at the breeding season, utters a call note which consists of two clear, musical “rings,” followed by a long descending131 “trill” like that of our British Greenfinch. But, it is to be noted132, both sexes in this case perform.
The period of sexual activity with perhaps the majority of animals is intermittent133 and extends over but a short period annually134; with others potency135 is continuous, at least with the males, though desire becomes clamant only when aroused by external stimuli. But whenever this condition be aroused it invariably finds expression in exaggerated movements or vocal136 demonstrativeness. It uses the normal channels of expression, in short, but intensifies137 them. Now this period of sexual activity represents the maximum of “fitness” in animals, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find that when the barometer138 of vitality stands high some approach to the maximum of activity is indicated. In many birds this is revealed in song, though the earlier stimulating139 cause is absent. Among the cold-blooded frogs the same obtains. In the Edible Frog (Rana esculenta), for example, the males, which “are great musicians,” remarks Dr. Gadow, “go on singing for sheer enjoyment140 not only during the pairing time, but throughout the months of June and July. Warm, moonlight nights are the favourite times for the concert, which takes place in the water, beginning at sunset and continuing till early dawn. A few individuals utter a single note, ‘gwarr-oo-arr’ or ‘coarx’ but these are only preliminaries. The precentor ... begins with a sharp-sounding ‘brekeke’ and this is the signal for all the others to chime in with the same note, varied141 with all sorts of other sounds, bass142, 174tenor and alto, each performer filling its resounding143 vocal sacs to bursting size, and these bags then look as if they acted as floats. When there are several hundred of these sociable144 creatures the din9 is continuous, and may be heard more than a mile off.”
From what has been said of the Amphibia, and especially of the Newts, it would seem that, among the land vertebrates at any rate, the sexual instincts in this lowest or simplest form are satisfied with the discharge of the germinal products. Many, however, have advanced a stage further and reveal the rudiments145 of that instinctive care for offspring which develops to higher and higher grades as we ascend146 in the animal kingdom, till at last, in the human race, where the offspring is desired for its own sake, we ascend to the highest plane of all. The varied means of expression which these rudimentary instincts take in the Amphibia have already been discussed in “The Infancy147 of Animals,” which preceded this present volume, and hence no more need be said on this head in these pages.
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1
amorous
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| adj.多情的；有关爱情的 | |
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lizard
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| n.蜥蜴，壁虎 | |
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lizards
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| n.蜥蜴( lizard的名词复数 ) | |
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vitality
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| n.活力，生命力，效力 | |
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stimuli
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| n.刺激（物） | |
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complexity
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| n.复杂(性)，复杂的事物 | |
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7
interpretation
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| n.解释，说明，描述；艺术处理 | |
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8
instinctive
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| adj.(出于)本能的；直觉的；(出于)天性的 | |
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din
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| n.喧闹声，嘈杂声 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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11
structural
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| adj.构造的，组织的，建筑（用）的 | |
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12
mechanisms
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| n.机械( mechanism的名词复数 )；机械装置；[生物学] 机制；机械作用 | |
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13
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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14
stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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15
stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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glands
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| n.腺( gland的名词复数 ) | |
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gland
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| n.腺体，(机)密封压盖，填料盖 | |
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18
dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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19
arrogance
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| n.傲慢，自大 | |
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overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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eminence
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| n.卓越，显赫；高地，高处；名家 | |
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feat
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| n.功绩；武艺，技艺；adj.灵巧的，漂亮的，合适的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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emulate
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| v.努力赶上或超越，与…竞争；效仿 | |
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delusion
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| n.谬见，欺骗，幻觉，迷惑 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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quenched
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| 解（渴）( quench的过去式和过去分词 )； 终止（某事物）； （用水）扑灭（火焰等）； 将（热物体）放入水中急速冷却 | |
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trite
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| adj.陈腐的 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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descend
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| vt./vi.传下来，下来，下降 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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intensification
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| n.激烈化，增强明暗度；加厚 | |
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secretions
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| n.分泌（物）( secretion的名词复数 ) | |
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pigment
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| n.天然色素，干粉颜料 | |
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gaudily
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| adv.俗丽地 | |
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ornamental
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| adj.装饰的；作装饰用的；n.装饰品；观赏植物 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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reptiles
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| n.爬行动物，爬虫( reptile的名词复数 ) | |
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43
beetles
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| n.甲虫( beetle的名词复数 ) | |
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44
sluggish
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| adj.懒惰的，迟钝的，无精打采的 | |
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animated
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| adj.生气勃勃的，活跃的，愉快的 | |
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ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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47
hued
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| 有某种色调的 | |
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phlegmatic
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| adj.冷静的，冷淡的，冷漠的，无活力的 | |
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agility
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| n.敏捷，活泼 | |
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50
animation
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| n.活泼，兴奋，卡通片／动画片的制作 | |
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51
coveted
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| adj.令人垂涎的；垂涎的，梦寐以求的v.贪求，觊觎(covet的过去分词)；垂涎；贪图 | |
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52
dispel
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| vt.驱走，驱散，消除 | |
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53
apathy
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| n.漠不关心，无动于衷；冷淡 | |
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54
swollen
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| adj.肿大的，水涨的；v.使变大，肿胀 | |
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55
apathetic
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| adj.冷漠的，无动于衷的 | |
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56
exudes
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| v.缓慢流出，渗出，分泌出( exude的第三人称单数 )；流露出对（某物）的神态或感情 | |
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57
jaw
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| n.颚，颌，说教，流言蜚语；v.喋喋不休，教训 | |
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58
musk
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| n.麝香, 能发出麝香的各种各样的植物，香猫 | |
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59
awakens
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| v.（使）醒( awaken的第三人称单数 )；（使）觉醒；弄醒；（使）意识到 | |
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60
monochromatic
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| adj.单色的，一色的 | |
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61
hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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62
vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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63
garnished
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| v.给（上餐桌的食物）加装饰( garnish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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64
pouch
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| n.小袋，小包，囊状袋；vt.装...入袋中，用袋运输；vi.用袋送信件 | |
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65
variant
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| adj.不同的，变异的；n.变体，异体 | |
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66
elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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67
backwards
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| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
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68
ribs
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| n.肋骨( rib的名词复数 )；（船或屋顶等的）肋拱；肋骨状的东西；（织物的）凸条花纹 | |
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69
prospective
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| adj.预期的，未来的，前瞻性的 | |
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70
hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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71
flanges
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| n.（机械等的）凸缘，（火车的）轮缘( flange的名词复数 ) | |
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72
swell
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| vi.膨胀，肿胀；增长，增强 | |
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73
rosy
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| adj.美好的，乐观的，玫瑰色的 | |
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74
lining
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| n.衬里，衬料 | |
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75
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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76
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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77
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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78
pugnacious
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| adj.好斗的 | |
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79
concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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80
foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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81
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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82
pouches
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| n.（放在衣袋里或连在腰带上的）小袋( pouch的名词复数 )；（袋鼠等的）育儿袋；邮袋；（某些动物贮存食物的）颊袋 | |
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83
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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84
pugnacity
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| n.好斗，好战 | |
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85
lash
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| v.系牢；鞭打；猛烈抨击；n.鞭打；眼睫毛 | |
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86
requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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87
rhinoceros
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| n.犀牛 | |
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88
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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89
spines
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| n.脊柱( spine的名词复数 )；脊椎；（动植物的）刺；书脊 | |
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90
hampers
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| 妨碍，束缚，限制( hamper的第三人称单数 ) | |
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avocations
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| n.业余爱好，嗜好( avocation的名词复数 )；职业 | |
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inhibited
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| a.拘谨的，拘束的 | |
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93
exterminated
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| v.消灭，根绝( exterminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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94
by-product
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| n.副产品，附带产生的结果 | |
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95
garb
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| n.服装，装束 | |
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96
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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97
terrapins
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| n.（北美的）淡水龟( terrapin的名词复数 ) | |
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98
dodging
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| n.避开，闪过，音调改变v.闪躲( dodge的现在分词 )；回避 | |
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99
frantic
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| adj.狂乱的，错乱的，激昂的 | |
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100
blurred
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| v.（使）变模糊( blur的过去式和过去分词 )；（使）难以区分；模模糊糊；迷离 | |
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101
circumventing
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| v.设法克服或避免（某事物），回避( circumvent的现在分词 )；绕过，绕行，绕道旅行 | |
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102
extrusion
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| n.挤出；推出；喷出；赶出 | |
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103
emissions
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| 排放物( emission的名词复数 )； 散发物（尤指气体） | |
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104
fertilizing
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| v.施肥( fertilize的现在分词 ) | |
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105
seminal
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| adj.影响深远的；种子的 | |
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106
purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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107
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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108
entice
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| v.诱骗，引诱，怂恿 | |
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109
gasping
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| adj. 气喘的, 痉挛的 动词gasp的现在分词 | |
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110
astonishment
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| n.惊奇，惊异 | |
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111
contemplates
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| 深思，细想，仔细考虑( contemplate的第三人称单数 )； 注视，凝视； 考虑接受（发生某事的可能性）； 深思熟虑，沉思，苦思冥想 | |
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112
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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113
marvels
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| n.奇迹( marvel的名词复数 )；令人惊奇的事物（或事例）；不平凡的成果；成就v.惊奇，对…感到惊奇( marvel的第三人称单数 ) | |
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114
undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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115
inflamed
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| adj.发炎的，红肿的v.（使）变红，发怒，过热( inflame的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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116
realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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117
derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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118
dispense
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| vt.分配，分发；配(药)，发(药)；实施 | |
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119
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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120
crests
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| v.到达山顶（或浪峰）( crest的第三人称单数 )；到达洪峰，达到顶点 | |
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121
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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122
extruded
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| v.挤压出( extrude的过去式和过去分词 )；挤压成；突出；伸出 | |
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123
Fertilized
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| v.施肥( fertilize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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124
touching
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| adj.动人的，使人感伤的 | |
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125
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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126
edible
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| n.食品，食物；adj.可食用的 | |
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127
mallet
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| n.槌棒 | |
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128
copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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129
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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130
shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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131
descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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132
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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133
intermittent
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| adj.间歇的，断断续续的 | |
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134
annually
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| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
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135
potency
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| n. 效力，潜能 | |
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136
vocal
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| adj.直言不讳的；嗓音的；n.[pl.]声乐节目 | |
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137
intensifies
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| n.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的名词复数 )v.（使）增强， （使）加剧( intensify的第三人称单数 ) | |
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138
barometer
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| n.气压表，睛雨表，反应指标 | |
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139
stimulating
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| adj.有启发性的，能激发人思考的 | |
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140
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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141
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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142
bass
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| n.男低音(歌手)；低音乐器；低音大提琴 | |
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143
resounding
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| adj. 响亮的 | |
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144
sociable
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| adj.好交际的，友好的，合群的 | |
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145
rudiments
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| n.基础知识，入门 | |
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146
ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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147
infancy
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| n.婴儿期；幼年期；初期 | |
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