It is a curious and significant fact that in the most brilliantly coloured of the Invertebrates—the Butterflies and Moths9—” courtship” in the sense of “wooing” is extremely rarely met with; and this is quite contrary to what the Sexual Selection theory of Darwin demands, for, according to this, the colours are the result of that selection. On the other hand, Spiders, which are for the most part dull-coloured creatures, and the Scorpions, which are also dull-coloured, are commonly extraordinarily10 demonstrative during the early stages of “mate-hunger.” Some practise the form of instrumental music known as “stridulation,” others dance and indulge in other forms of posturing11.
In the Spiders the stridulating apparatus12 is formed either between the limb-bearing portions of the body, or “cephalothorax,” and the abdomen13; between the 237palps or leg-like feelers, and the jaws14; or between these feelers and the front legs. But the construction is similar in all. In some Spiders the abdomen bears a horny collar, which is toothed, and these teeth, as the abdomen is raised and depressed15, scrape against a number of delicate ridges16 on the thorax, or “chest,” which form a surface recalling that of a file. The grating of these opposing surfaces against one another produces shrill18 rasping or chirping19 sounds, which, in some cases at any rate, seem to be designed to inform the female of the presence of a suitor. Those who will, may examine this strange instrument for themselves if they will take the trouble to seek for it in one of our commonest English Spiders (Steatoda bipunctata). That it serves as a sexual excitant, or as an aid to mate-hunting, is indicated by the fact that it is found in males only, or in a very rudimentary condition in the female. There is a large Spider in Assam (Chilobrachys stridulatus) which produces a sound like the drawing of the back of a knife along the edge of a strong comb; and there are others which, by the friction20 of the feelers against the jaws, produce sounds like the buzzing of bees. One of the Wolf-spiders (Lycosa kochy) is known as the “purring” or “drumming” Spider from its custom, at mating-time, of rapidly drumming on dead leaves with its feelers. It is a wood-haunting species, and runs hither and thither21 over the ground as if searching for something, and pausing frequently to “purr.” This singular method of producing sound recalls that of the drumming of Woodpeckers on the hollow branches of trees, and similarly is produced without any special mechanism22.
That the Scorpions should possess similar stridulating organs is only what we should expect, having regard to 238their kinship with the Spiders. In the great Rock scorpions of India and Africa the stridulating apparatus lies between the basal segment of the pincers and that of the first pair of legs, and consists of a set of tubercles and a cluster of curved, hair-tipped spines23. During moments of excitement the pincers are waved up and down so that the spinules scrape against the tubercles, emitting a rustling24 sound, which has been compared to that produced by rubbing a stiff tooth-brush with one’s finger-nails. In the South African Opisthophthalmus the mechanism differs, consisting of leaf-like hairs placed on the inner surface of the jaws. But since both sexes possess these strange sound-producing mechanisms25 it has been suggested that their main, if not their only purpose, is to serve as a warning to enemies to keep their distance. Some of the great bird-eating Spiders (Aviculariid?) produce a kind of whistle; others, sounds like the dropping of shot upon a plate.
These stridulating contrivances present some curious and puzzling features. In the first place the sounds they produce are never loud to human ears; therein they differ from the shrill piercing sounds produced by like mechanism by the Crickets and Grasshoppers26, though even with some of these the notes are, to us, inaudible. In the second, it has been suggested that where both sexes possess a stridulating apparatus its purpose is solely27 to warn off enemies, and this because the performers have no sense of hearing, and are thus, we presume, unaware28 of the sounds they produce. There is something unsatisfactory about this line of argument. There seems to be no evidence either that the sounds produced are loud enough to terrify an enemy, or that the performers are really deaf.
239In cases where the males alone stridulate it is always supposed that this “music” serves the purpose of a lure29, or acts as an excitant, to the female, even though inaudible to human ears. But there are many people who are unable to hear the shrill squeal30 of our native bats. Yet no one doubts but that all bats hear it. The argument as to the absence of any sense of hearing in certain Spiders is based on their failure to respond to the vibrations31 of a tuning-fork, but this evidence is not conclusive32. Neither is it safe to infer that the presence of stridulating organs in the adult and immature33 stages of both sexes, in some species, precludes34 their recognition as secondary sexual characters. They may serve the double purpose of sexual excitants and terrifying enemies, their motive35 being expressed by the quality of the sound as certainly as the timbre36 of the human voice may express rage or pleasure.
Neither Spiders nor Scorpions exhibit any very striking secondary sexual characters. As a rule the female is the larger, often strikingly so. Bright colours are rare, and are met with only among the Spiders, wherein sometimes the male, sometimes the female, is the more resplendent; where bright colours—apple-green, red and yellow—do occur, they seem rather to be of the type known as Anti-cryptic, or aggressive resemblance colours. That is to say, they are hues37 developed to deceive prey39 by reason of the likeness40 they afford the wearer to its surroundings. Thus, for example, one of our native Spiders (Tibellus oblongus) is straw-coloured, and has an elongated41 body, which is therefore seen with difficulty amid dry grass and rushes which are the haunts of the species. Misumena vatia, one of the Crab6-spiders, resembles the flowers on which it is accustomed to lurk42 for its prey. It is of a 240variable hue38, commonly yellow or pink, and a favoured lurking-place is near the blooms of the great mullein (Verbascum thapsus), where it seizes upon bees coming for honey. Exotic relatives of this species afford far more striking illustrations of this kind. One has a pink, three-lobed body which bears a striking likeness to a withered43 flower, and it exhales44 a sweet odour of jasmine. Insects attracted by the smell are thus readily pounced45 upon. Dr. Trimen, of Cape46 Town, describes a rose-red species which exactly matches an oleander flower, and to complete the deception47 the abdomen is marked with white. The same observer, approaching a bush of the yellow-flowered Senecio pubigera, noticed that two of the numerous butterflies settled upon it did not fly away with their companions. Each of these he found to be in the clutches of a spider whose remarkable48 resemblance to the flower lay not only in its colour, but in the attitude it assumed. “Holding on to the flower-stalk by the two hinder pairs of legs, it extended the two long front pairs upwards50 and laterally51. In this position it was scarcely possible to believe that it was not a flower seen in profile, the rounded abdomen representing the central mass of florets, and the extended legs the ray florets; while to complete the illusion the femora of the front pair of legs, addressed to the thorax, have each a longitudinal red stripe which represents the ferruginous stripe on the sepals of the flower.” But more remarkable still is the case cited by my friend Dr. H. O. Forbes. This came under his notice while butterfly hunting in Java. The butterflies of the family Hesperid? have a habit of settling on the excreta of birds. Forbes noticed one on a leaf apparently52 enjoying a feast. Creeping up, he seized hold of this victim 241of a depraved taste and found it mysteriously held down. On further examination of this “excreta” he found that it was really a spider! Later, when in Sumatra, the same species once more in like manner deceived him. The deception is more than usually remarkable, for it is not due to the coloration of the body, but to what may almost be described as a diabolically53 ingenious display of intelligence. For the creature weaves upon a leaf a small white patch of web exactly resembling the fluid excrement54 of a bird sliding down the smooth surface of the leaf. Having completed this, the weaver55 lies on its back in the middle of the web holding on by the spines with which the legs are furnished. It then awaits its victim with the disengaged portions of the legs ready to close in a deadly embrace the moment the lure has done its work. Though somewhat in the nature of a digression, these facts show that colour often plays a vital part in well-being56; though in the matter of courtship its r?le has probably been overestimated57. Colour as an aid to “mate hunting “probably nowhere plays so important a part as was at one time believed. The Warblers among the birds, and the Spiders among more lowly animals, seem to demonstrate this fact.
The actual mating of Spiders, the act of coition, is peculiar58, and demands notice, for the orgasm is not accomplished at the moment of the ejection of the sexual products. The male discharges the seminal59 fluid upon a small web woven for the purpose, and the liberated60 spermatozoa are then sucked up into a tube—the receptaculum seminis—which lies coiled up within a hollow bulb attached to the base of the last joint62 of the leg-like feeler, or “pedipalp” at the base of the head. The precious fluid is there stored and retained until the moment arrives when these palps can be thrust into die 242genital aperture63 of the female, and their contents discharged for the second and last time. This is the critical moment of the Spider’s life, and it is noteworthy that it should occur now, instead of at the moment of the discharge from the body. The ejection from the palpal organ is effected by means of a fibro-elastic64 bag, in its normal, collapsed65, state spirally disposed round the base of the bulb which contains the sperm61 tube. Immediately preceding copulation this elastic bag or “h?matodocha” becomes turgid with blood, and it is probably the pressure thus exerted on its base which affords the final fury of desire without which, indeed, one might well imagine the necessary courage for copulation would never be raised, at any rate, in the case of some species.
Strange as these facts are, the nice adjustment of the instincts for their effectual performance is, by comparison, stranger still. By what subtle sense is the male Spider informed of the importance of the fertilizing66 fluid which escapes his body? What prompts him before its escape to prepare a web for its reception? What prompts him after its deposition67 to collect it within the palp till it shall be needed? The least defect in the instincts appertaining to these vitally important acts would mean the extinction68 of the race. We cannot suppose that the nature of their performance is in any way realized by the performer, and this makes their orderly execution the more wonderful.
Plate 34.
MALE ASTIA DISPLAYING BEFORE THE LESS BRILLIANT FEMALE.
From drawings, T. Carreras, in “Marvels of the Universe.”
MALE ICIUS DISPLAYING.
The “courtship” of the male spider takes the form of a “display” recalling that of birds. He commonly ends in being eaten by his mate.
[Face page 242.
Our knowledge of Spiders under the afflatus69 of sexual desire has been immensely increased by the long and patient observations of Mr. and Mrs. Peckham. The fact that their investigations70 were carried on with captive specimens71, and therefore under artificial conditions both as to environment and the number of individuals placed 243together at one time, must not be lost sight of; nor must we forget that they worked under the firm conviction that the Sexual Selection theory of choice by the females was an indisputable fact. Wherever colour was present they looked for, and saw, evidence that the female appreciated such hues, though from their observations it would seem that dull-coloured species behaved as though they were suffused72 with resplendent hues. In the course of their studies the courtship of several species was investigated, but a summary of their results is all that can be given here. Saitis pulex formed the subject of one of their experiments. A male was placed in a box containing a mature female. “He saw her as she stood perfectly73 still, twelve inches away; the glance seemed to excite him and he moved towards her; when some four inches from her he stood still, and then began the most remarkable performance that an amorous74 male could offer to an admiring female. She eyed him eagerly, changing her position from time to time so that he might be always in view. He, raising his whole body on one side by straightening out the legs, and lowering it on the other by folding the first two pairs of legs up and under, leans so far over as to be in danger of losing his balance, which he only maintains by sidling rapidly towards the lowered side. The palpus, too, on this side was turned back to correspond to the direction of the legs nearest to it. He moved in a semicircle for about two inches, and then instantly reversed the position of the legs and circled in the opposite direction, gradually approaching nearer and nearer to the female. Now she dashes towards him, while he, raising his first pair of legs, extends them upwards and forwards as if to hold her off, but withal slowly retreats. Again and again he 244circles from side to side, she gazing towards him in a softer mood, evidently admiring the grace of his antics. This is repeated until we have counted one hundred and eleven circles made by the ardent75 little male. Now he approaches nearer and nearer, and when almost within reach whirls madly around and around her, she joining and whirling with him in a giddy maze76. Again he falls back and resumes his semicircular motions with his body tilted77 over; she, all excitement, lowers her head and raises her body so that it is almost vertical78; both draw nearer; she moves slowly under him, he crawling over her head, and the mating is accomplished. After they have paired once the preliminary courtship is not so long. On one occasion a female was the more eager of the two, but this is evidently very exceptional. The female always watches the antics of the male intently, but often refuses him in the end, even after dancing before her for a long time.”
Of another species—Epiblemum scenicum—they write: “The females seemed to have some difficulty in choosing from among the males, but after a decision has been reached and a male accepted, there appeared to be complete agreement.” A species of the genus Iritis, which seems to have baffled identification, was watched for hours under natural conditions as well as in confinement79.” A dozen or more males, and about half as many females, were assembled together within the length of one of the rails. The males were rushing hither and thither, dancing opposite now one female, now another; often two males met each other, when a short passage of arms followed. They waved their first legs, sidled back and forth80, and then rushed together and clinched81, but quickly separated, 245neither being hurt, only to run off in search of fairer foes82.”
These most patient observers seem to have been convinced that whenever Spiders possess vividly83 coloured areas on their bodies they are not only conscious of this fact, but desire to make the most of such splendour during the period of love-making. Thus they interpret the behaviour of a curiously85 ant-like Spider—Synageles picata—which has the first pair of legs especially thickened, flattened86 on the anterior87 surface, and of a highly iridescent88 steel-blue colour. As he approaches the female he pauses “every few moments to rock from side to side, and to bend his brilliant legs so that she may look full at them; ... he could not have chosen a better position than the one he took to make a display.” And similarly they interpret the movements of another species—Dendryphantes capitatus—which has a bronze-brown face, rendered conspicuous90 by snow-white bands. The attitude he assumes when sexually excited is one which seems, to them at any rate, to serve admirably to expose this feature to the watchful91 female. But he has other charms, and his “antics are repeated for a very long time, often for hours; when at last, the female, either won by his beauty or worn out by his persistence92, accepts his addresses.” Habrocestum splendens—unhappily these creatures have no names in common speech—possesses an abdomen of a magnificent purplish red, and the attitude which he assumes at courtship they regard as one designed to display this to the full. Another case of quite remarkable interest is that of Astia vittata, because the males appear to be dimorphic. That is to say, they appear under two quite distinct forms, the one red, like the female; and the other black, with three tufts of hair just behind the head. The attitudes and 246the movements of courtship, it is significant to remark, are entirely93 different in the two varieties: the black form, assumed to be the later development, “is much the more lively of the two, and whenever the varieties were seen to compete for a female, the black one was successful.”
Professor Poulton, commenting on this particular case, contends that “it must be admitted that these facts afford the strongest support to the theory of Sexual Selection.” But do they? A further examination of the facts will probably show that the red “form” is but an immature example, and this being so, the difference in performance and the invariable success of Othello is at once accounted for. The fact that the “two forms pass into each other” and that the “tufts only occur in the fully94 developed niger form” is an additional reason for regarding the red form as immature.
Professor Poulton remarks: “When the males possess any special adornment95 they make a point of displaying them as fully as possible.” If this be so it seems to be a very foolhardy proceeding96, akin84 to holding the proverbial “red rag” to a bull: for it is well known that the male Spider seeking a mate carries his life in his hands, at any rate in the case of many species. Mr. and Mrs. Peckham observed several instances of this remarkable sequel to Love’s embraces. In describing the female of Phidippus morsitans they remark that she was “a savage97 monster. The two males we provided for her had offered her only the merest civilities, when she leaped upon them and killed them.” The first pair of legs in the males of this species possess “special adornments” in the shape of long white hairs, and it was “while one of the males was waving these handsome 247legs over his head that he was seized by his mate and devoured99.” Again, in the case of a male of Phidippus rufus, the display of his “ornaments” was his undoing101, for he was “caught and eaten when he insisted upon showing off his fine points too persistently102.” Thus the females seem to “select” the more resplendent males as much for eating as for mating! The ogre-like habits of the females in this regard, indeed, are almost without parallel in the animal kingdom.
Anyone who cares to take the trouble to watch the web of the large Garden Spider (Epeira diademata) may witness one of these connubial103 tragedies. In this species, the males are conspicuously104 smaller than the females, and it is possible that this disparity has been brought about by Sexual Selection, the largest and least active males having been exterminated105. In some species the discrepancy106 in size is most striking, as for example in Nephila chrysogaster, the female of which measures two inches in length, the male not more than one-tenth of an inch, and less than one one-thousand-three-hundredth part of her weight.
The males, apparently, fully realize the perils107 which their amours may lead them into. They haunt the borders of the webs of unmated females, but exhibit a hesitating, irresolute108 manner. For hours they will linger near her, feeling the silken carpet cautiously with their legs, and apparently trying to ascertain109 the nature of the welcome likely to be extended to them. The odds110 are against them: for even if allowed to mate, unless they are extraordinarily agile111 in slipping away the moment they have attained112 their object, the chances are they will be slain113 and eaten!
Among some species, however, matters are otherwise: 248for the males of the genus Linyphia, for example, are generally to be found living peacefully with their consorts114.
More rarely the male weaves a small nuptial115 tent, into which he partly leads and partly drives the female: though the “driving” would appear to be merely for form’s sake! The habits of the Cellar Spider (Tegenaria parietina), a long-legged species fairly common in the South of England, affords a yet further interesting and instructive contrast with the foregoing accounts. The pairing habits of this species have been studied by many observers, but perhaps the best account is that of Mr. F. M. Campbell. He found, to begin with, that in this species the tender ties of mating are at any rate rarely violated by the horrible aftermath of cannibalism116 so common a feature with so many other Spiders.
One or two illustrations from Mr. Campbell’s work must suffice. On one occasion he placed together a male and a female. For four days they took no notice of one another; then the female cast what proved to be her last skin, and within three hours after, the male began to show signs of interest in her presence—which is a fact of some significance, for not till then had she attained maturity117. “After a few convulsive twitchings of the legs, the male pressed forwards, moving his palpi”—the leg like “feelers” on each side of the head which form the genital organs (page 241)—“up and down, when, as they touched the palpi of the female, the pair played with these organs like two friendly bees with their antenn?. After a few minutes the female raised herself, leaning a little on her left side, and the male crept forward until his head was under the breast of his mate, while his first pair of legs were resting upon hers. He now 249advanced his right palpus, leaning a little to the left and using the left palpus as part of his support. The right palpus was slightly twisted so as to bring the surface (containing the fertilizing germs) opposite the sexual organs of the female.... He now rapidly raised his palpus up and down for four or more seconds, and with such energy as to compel her to assume a vertical position. He then retired118 and again approached her, repeating the movements ... occasionally pausing before he withdrew his palpus.... At times he would leave the female for five minutes, and strut119 with straightened legs round the vase, wagging his abdomen. Now and then he would remain perfectly still with the palpus withdrawn120, or play with the palpi of the female, while she seemed in a comatose121 state. He would then renew the union with undiminished vigour122, appearing on each occasion less desirous of changing his position. I left them at 12–30 a.m. and returned at 7 a.m. The male was still using his right palpus. I saw no application of the left palpus, but have no doubt that it was employed during the night, as in other cases. I have not observed the pairing ever interrupted by a fresh collection of semen, although there is no reason to think this may not occur. The duration of pairing is long; but I am inclined to think it is more dependent on the difficulty in inserting the palpus than on sexual endurance. The impregnation appeared to take place when the male retained his palpi in front of the bursa copulatrices for about thirty seconds, which was frequently the case.” There are occasions, however, when a very different sequel attends this dalliance. In one instance, for example, Mr. Campbell placed a pair together, and at once the male began to pay his addresses. “Shortly 250afterwards he rapidly applied123 one of his palpi to the female ... apparently with her consent.” Five hours later “he charged her, tore away two legs ... and began to suck one, using the mandibles to hold the limb as a human being would a stick of asparagus.” It is not surprising to find she died an hour afterwards. An examination of her remains124 brought to light the fact that she was not mature. But this does not apparently explain the ferocity of her partner, for this investigator125 on two other occasions saw males similarly dismember their spouses126 an hour or so after impregnation. This horrid127 feast cannot have been prompted by hunger, for one of these males had, but a few hours previously128, eaten a daddy-long-legs and two blow-flies. Only twice did this investigator see a female of this species drive away a male, and in each case immediately after union. “On the other hand,” he says, “I have kept an adult pair together from the 22nd of August to the 28th of October, and they lived in perfect amity129. The male never ceased paying unrequited attentions except to feed.” It will have been remarked that the behaviour of this species in regard to mating differs conspicuously from the accounts of observations on other species, wherein the aggressive instincts are displayed by the female. Mr. Campbell, commenting on these facts, remarks that such conduct is just what one would expect from creatures which lead solitary130 lives, and must have “come to regard weaker forms of animal life as food, or as an inconvenience, if we except its young or its mate when in the act of pairing.” Instincts which are habitually131 practised throughout the greater portion of the life of the species, and on which existence depends, would scarcely be suspended for a longer period than necessary for sexual 251union. Spiders frequently eat one another, and such an occurrence after pairing is only curious if considered apart from their habits. When the sexual desire is satisfied, their actions would again be directed by the dominant132 instinct of destruction.
It is to be noticed that the attack, when made by a female, often immediately follows the sexual union, while in the case where males assume the aggressive it takes place some time afterwards. Mr. Campbell explains this by the supposition that the action of the female, when satiated, would be precipitated133 by the threatened and unacceptable continued application of the hard, spiny134 palpus, while the more lasting135 desire of the male would have to subside136 before he became directed by another instinct. By that time, other attractions, if not his wandering disposition137, would take him away from the web.
The fact that male Spiders are comparatively rare is perhaps explained by the fact that they are very short-lived; they probably die soon after pairing—even if they are not eaten! The snares138 they spin, it is to be noted139, are very imperfect, though curiously enough, when young they make perfect snares on a small scale.
It will have been noticed, in the course of the foregoing descriptions, that Spiders display a more or less conspicuous wariness140, a cool, deliberate “counting on the cost” in their matrimonial ventures that is often wanting in such matters in the human race. But, then, the risks involved are more patent, more imminent141. Mr. Campbell comments on this intelligent behaviour in the case of the Cellar Spider, remarking that they measure “each other’s strength when on the same web by the tension and motion of the threads.”
252A word as to the Scorpions. These creatures are near relations of the Spiders, and in many things resemble them, notably142 in regard to their ferocity. One does not meet here, however, with the same disparity in size between the sexes, nor are vivid colours ever developed. This, according to some, would be accounted for by the fact that though these creatures possess numerous eyes they are practically blind, and depend for their information as to what is going on around them by their sense of touch, which is excessively delicate. They are morose143 in disposition and always solitary. It has been said that if two are found under the same stone—a favourite lurking-place—one is engaged in eating the other! Nevertheless, they are of abstemious144 habits, for the naturalist145 Fabre found that from October to March they last, though throughout this time they remain alert, and always ready to resent disturbance146. In April they exhibit more activity, though even then they eat but little. But now they begin to wander in search of mates.
Fabre’s observations on their mating habits are exceedingly interesting, and they have brought to light some very extraordinary phenomena147. His notes were made on the species common in the South of France—Buthus occitans. Mr. Cecil Warburton, referring to the distinguished148 Frenchman’s work, quotes the following noteworthy passage in the Cambridge Natural History: “After some very curious antics, in which the animals stood face to face with raised tails, which they intertwined ... they always indulged in what Fabre calls a ‘promenade149 à deux’ hand in hand, so to speak, the male seizing the chel? of the female with his own and walking backwards150, while the female followed, usually without any reluctance151. This promenade occupied an 253hour or more, during which the animals turned several times. At length, if in the neighbourhood of a suitable stone, the male would dig a hole, without for a moment entirely quitting his hold of the female, and presently both would disappear into the newly-formed retreat.”
Plate 35.
Photo by P. H. Fabre.
SCORPIONS.
The early stages in the courtship of the scorpions are full of romance. The two prospective152 partners for life engaging in a kind of waltz, holding each other’s “hands.”
[Face page 252.
After the mating, as with the Spiders, the male is often devoured by the female. After any combat with an enemy, such as a Lycosa or a Scolopendra, it seems to be de rigueur to eat the vanquished153.
If the mating period in the case of the higher animals rouses the males to the pitch of frenzy154, that frenzy is dangerous only to possible rivals. With the more lowly Spiders and Scorpions ferocity of disposition is a normal feature, and one which can with difficulty be held in check long enough to permit the all-important act of mating to take place. In how far this is accounted for by the extremely deficient155 senses of sight and hearing, which are such marked features in these animals, it would be difficult to estimate. But that the manner of their display is governed by these deficiencies there can be no doubt. The Spider, having a more or less efficient vision at short range, executes more or less elaborate antics in front of the female, designed, as in the case of the birds, to serve as excitants to fan sexual desire, already smouldering, to a flame. With the purblind156 Scorpion2 the Spider-antics are useless; he must proclaim his desire by a pressure of the hand, and by intertwining his tail with that of his prospective mate as they “walk out” together. But Scorpions at one time were credited with a very acute sense of hearing; later investigations, however, fail to yield any evidence whatever that they possess this sense, though experiment has proved that 254their sense of touch is excessively delicate and seems to reside in the hairs which are thickly distributed over the legs and body. Now, hearing and touch are senses near akin, and the vibrations produced by stridulation may be, and probably are, received by, and interpreted through, the medium of these hairs. For though the Scorpion may not respond to sounds made by curious investigators157, it may be that they can perceive notes of a low pitch imperceptible to our ears, such as are made by stridulating organs, as in the case of the Spiders.
Perchance certain comb-like structures known as the “pectines” may play a part in mate-hunting. These are placed on either side of the under-surface of the body between the last two pairs of legs. The fact that they are larger in the male, and sometimes strangely modified in the female, seems to show that they have some function in relation to sex. They also appear to serve as sources of information as to the nature of the ground traversed by the animal, since they are long in species which walk with the body raised high off the ground and short in such as adopt a more grovelling158 posture159. That the Scorpions possess but a very limited means of gleaning160 information of the outer world there can be no doubt. How, then, do they find one another when that insistent161 desire to mate begins to make itself felt? Are the “pectines” their informants through the sense of smell? Do the hairs scattered162 over the body act as sound-collectors responding to the notes emitted by the stridulating organs? These are points on which information is much to be desired.
Plate 36.
Photo by P. H. Fabre.
DEATH OF THE MALE SCORPION.
But by the time the nuptial rites163 have been performed the female has thrown off her “sweetness,” and ends by eating her lover!
[Face page 254.
Plate 37.
Photo by Paul H. Fabre.
With these insects, as with the spiders and scorpions, the male is often eaten by the female.
Our survey of the “Arthropoda,” as those limb-bearing jointed166 animals invested in a horny, or, more exactly, a “chitinous” external skeleton are called has so far 255been confined to such as, during adult life, at least, are land-dwellers. But the aquatic167 types known as the “Crustacea” furnish some extremely interesting facts in regard to the problems of sex. In the first place, they too possess a stridulating apparatus. This is curious, but not surprising, because, although the skeleton of such creatures is of a harder and almost stone-like character, the development of roughened surfaces working in opposition168 to one another might well have been foretold169 to occur, at least in some individuals. Colonel Alcock—a naturalist who has contributed largely to our knowledge of marine170 animals by his researches in the Indian Ocean—in his most delightful171 book “A Naturalist in Indian Seas,” describes what he calls a “musical crab.” This is the great-horned Coromandel Strand172 Crab (Ocypoda macrocera). In both sexes of this remarkable genus he says, “the nippers, or chelipeds, are singularly unequal in size, and in all the species but one there is present on the inner surface of the ‘hand’ of the larger cheliped a transverse row of five teeth, which, when the cheliped is flexed173, can be made to play against a ridge17 or another row of teeth on its ‘arm’ ... much as a man might rub one side of his chest with the palm of the corresponding hand. The whole mechanism, except that it is on a larger scale and has a more finished appearance, is very much like that by means of which crickets and grasshoppers produce their shrill music, and no one has ever doubted that it is used for the same purpose, though very few people have actually heard it in action. I myself ... was beginning to think that the structure must, after all, have some quite other function, when one morning ... on the sandy wastes 256of the Godavari delta174, I at last, like Ancient Pistol, heard with ears that which I had been so long waiting for. That is to say, I heard a noise very much like that which an angry squirrel makes, and discovered that it came from a red ocypode crab into whose burrow175 another individual had trespassed176.
“In order to understand the matter it should be known that these crabs ... are gregarious177, and that each one has a burrow of its own. Though they may be seen marching in battalions178 across the sand, yet as a rule they stay close to their burrows179, methodically searching and sifting180 the surrounding sand for any food that may have been thrown up by the tide, and flying to their burrows with headlong speed when alarmed. At first sight one does not understand the necessity for so much wariness, and for such a deep system of entrenchment181, for the creatures seem to hold undisputed possession of the whole shore; but as a matter of fact they are preyed182 upon all day long by Brahminy kites, and when the jackals come out in the evening, by them. Now, although each crab may on ordinary peaceful occasions know its own home, yet when a crowd of them are running for their lives they may sometimes, one would think, act on the devil take the hindmost principle and try to squeeze into the nearest burrow. But as ancient philosophers do report, things may be done upon occasion which it is inexpedient to make a habit of doing, and this seems to be one of those things; for if many Crabs made a practice of crowding into one small burrow they would certainly run the risk of being suffocated183, if not crushed to death outright184. It seems probable, therefore, that it would be advantageous185 to the species as a whole if the rights of property in burrows were rigidly186 respected, and if each individual 257member possessed187 some means of giving notice that its burrow was occupied ... and I think that this consideration gives us a clue to the use of the stridulating mechanism. At any rate, I was often able, after my first accidental discovery, to elicit188 the sound, by catching189 one of these crabs and forcing it into a burrow which I knew was already occupied: the intruder would never go far in, but would crouch190 just inside the mouth of the burrow, and if it were made to travel deeper, then the voice of the rightful owner would be heard in indignant remonstrance191 from the depths.” Another species, the Grey Ocypode Crab (Ocypoda ceratophthalmus), possesses a similar instrument, and makes therewith a loud, croaking192 noise. But it does not often burrow deeply. Colonel Alcock therefore suggests that in this case it may be used for scaring enemies.
That these curious musical instruments may also be used in mate-hunting seems highly probable. If the stridulation is produced on one occasion to announce the fact that callers are not desired, it may on another signify an equally emphatic193 invitation to enter, the mood of the occupant being expressed by the character of the sounds emitted. It is significant, at any rate, that there are no external sexual differences in these species; hence the probability that it is by stridulation that the sexes distinguish one another.
This view seems to obtain confirmation194 from the fact that the Crabs of the genus Gelasimus, or “Fiddler-crabs,” which are near relations of the ocypode Crabs, and, like them, live in burrows in large companies, and are exposed to the same enemies, which they avoid in the same way by burrowing195, have no stridulating mechanism, but the sexes are strikingly different. This is especially so in the case of the nippers, or chelipeds. These, in the 258female, are slender and much shorter than the legs, being used mainly for feeding. In the adult male one of these “hands” is often twice as big as the body itself! “Many uses,” remarks Colonel Alcock, “have been assigned to this enormous, lop-sided organ: some say that it is used as a stopper to barricade196 the mouth of the burrow, others that it is a sort of cradle or bridal-couch upon which the female reclines—the male, in this case, literally197 bestowing198 his hand upon the female; but from observations of Gelasimus annulipes, the species which most frequents the Godavari mud-flats, I believe that it primarily serves as a war-club, for the males indulge in interminable tournaments for the hand of the female; and secondarily, for it is of a most beautiful cherry-red colour, as an ornament100 to attract and delight the latter capricious sex.
“Landing one afternoon in March upon a cheerful mud-flat of the Godavari sea-face, I was bewildered by the sight of a multitude of small pink objects twinkling in the sun, and always, like will-o’-the-wisps, disappearing as I came near to them, but flashing brightly on ahead as far as the eye could reach. It was not until I stayed perfectly quiet that I discovered that these twinkling gems199 were the brandished200 nippers of a host of the males of Gelasimus annulipes. By long watching, I found out that the little creatures were waving their nippers with a purpose—the purpose apparently being to attract the attention of an occasional infrequent female, who, uncertain, coy, and hard to please, might be seen unconcernedly sifting the sand at the mouth of her burrow. If this demure201 little flirt202 happened to creep near the burrow of one of the males, then that favoured individual became frantic203 with excitement, dancing round his 259domain on tip-toe and waving his great cherry hand as if demented. Then, if another male, burning with jealousy204, showed a desire to interfere205, the two puny206 little suitors would make savage back-handed swipes at one another, wielding207 their cumbrous hands as if they had no weight at all. Unfortunately, though I spent many a precious hour on the watch from time to time, I could never see that these combats came to anything; the males seemed always to be in a state of passionate208 excitement, and the females to be always indifferent and unconcerned; and though the dismembered chelipeds of vanquished males could often be seen lying on the battle-field, I never had the satisfaction of beholding209 a good stand-up fight, fought out to the sweet end, or a female rewarding a successful champion with her heartless person.”
Photos by W. Saville-Kent.
THE “FIDDLER-CRAB.”
This “strong right arm” is used in conflicts with rivals for the possession of the females.
Plate 38.
THE “FIDDLER-CRAB” AMONG MANGOE ROOTS.
This species is remarkable for the enormous size of the right “arm,” which exceeds that of the body.
[Face page 258.
The fascinating tale of Colonel Alcock’s observations does not end here, however, for he has brought to light some extremely interesting facts in regard to the sexual aspect of Crustacean210 life in the deep sea; information gathered during his exploration work on board the Investigatory much of which was done to enlarge our knowledge of the abysses of the ocean where the light of day never penetrates211. Here, he remarks, the conditions of life might seem to be reduced to a minimum of simplicity212, yet evidences are not wanting that, among the higher Crustacea, they are complicated, much as they are everywhere else, by the play of the sexual instincts.
In these awful depths, where reigns213 eternal night, most of the inhabitants, of whatever kind, from fishes downwards214, are blind and eyeless, or they possess 260enormous eyes and a purblind vision responding to the only light these regions display, that of phosphorescence, which is generated by so large a number of those creatures which are condemned215 by Fate to live this sunless life.
“It is written,” he remarks, “that the male must exert himself to find a mate, and where sight cannot help him in his search, a kind of blind-man’s buff is the only alternative. In this serious game many deep-sea Crustacea, especially those of the Shrimp-tribes, trust to the sense of smell, as the greatly developed outer, or olfactory216, branch of the first pair of antenn? bears witness. These antenn?, again, seem to be used by the males of some species for catching their partners, and in Parapeneus rectacutus ... they are turned into a sort of crook217 for this purpose. This has long been thought to be their function in the Prawns of the oceanic genus Sergestes.” In the male of certain other deep-sea Prawns, the hind49 pair of foot-jaws are modified in a way which can only mean that they are used for hooking on to a partner of the opposite sex. In the deep-sea Hermit-lobsters of the genus Munida the nippers are greatly enlarged, as in many Shore-crabs, for the purpose of subjugating218 rivals and embracing the females; and in all such cases these are much smaller in the female and immature male.
Mention of numerous cases has already been made where the female is larger than the male, and is the more pugnacious219, and in such cases the females are generally more numerous than the males. Some of the deep-sea Prawns exhibit the same peculiarity220. And in these the sword-like forward prolongation of the head-shield is far larger than in the male. Now this rostrum is the most formidable weapon which the Prawn7 possesses, 261so that we may, with tolerable certainty, conclude that the females fight their rivals for the possession of the males, which are, in these species, far less numerous than the females.
Among the lower Crustacea, such as the “Fairy-shrimps,” “Brine-shrimps,” the “Water-fleas,” and the “Copepoda,” which play so important a part in furnishing food for many of the fishes which in turn feed us, secondary sexual characters of an extremely interesting kind are met with. These, however, are never such as appeal to the eye, for the vision in these creatures is but feebly developed. Scent89, as is usual where sight is defective221, plays an important part in enabling the sexes to discover one another. Selection here secures success only to such as have the proper odour and the most sensitive organs of smell. In these creatures, as with the butterflies and moths, the odour emanating222 from the female is most powerful, while the sense of smell is most developed in the male. One of the most striking illustrations of these facts is furnished by that very beautiful species Leptodora hyalina—a veritable giant among these small Crustacea—wherein the antenn? of the male are produced into enormously elongated comb-like structures, the teeth of the comb being formed by delicate olfactory filaments223. In the female these antenn? are extremely short and their olfactory filaments are limited to a small terminal tuft to the antenn?, answering to the larger tuft at the base of the comb of the male.
To the majority of species, however, delicate odours seem to make little or no appeal, since excessive development of the olfactory apparatus, such as is seen in the aberrant224 Water-flea (Leptodora), is rare. This is perhaps explained by the fact that Leptodora is a species which 262does not herd225 together in vast numbers, hence, probably, the need of some exceptional means whereby the males may discover the whereabouts of the females, while in the case of the swarming226 hosts formed by Water-fleas and Brine-shrimps, for example, no such highly specialized227 aid is necessary. Instead, the males have developed powerful arms for the capture and retention228 of the females. In the case of the Brine-shrimp these arms are of quite formidable proportions. The males of the Copepoda, remarks Weismann, “possess on their anterior antenn? an arrangement which enables them to throw a long, whip-like structure like a lasso round the head of the female as she rapidly swims away. The antenn? of the male Daphnids, too, are in one genus (Moina) developed into a grasping apparatus; ... the first antenn? ... are not only much longer and stronger than those of the female, but they are also armed with claws at the end, so that the males can catch their mates as with a fork, and hold them fast. And even that was not enough, for, in addition, the males of most Daphnids possess a sickle229-shaped but blunt claw on the first pair of legs, which enables them to cling to the smooth shell of the female, and to clamber up on to it to get into the proper position for copulation.
Plate 40.
SOME REMARKABLE DEVICES.
1. A Water-flea (Moina rectirostris): male showing the claspers-the front pair of “legs,” for grasping the female.
3. The aberrant Water-flea (Leptodora kindlii): the male showing the long comb-like antenna231 for the discovery of the female (the left only is drawn), and the female, just beneath, lacking this olfactory organ.
4. An extraordinary species of Bug232 in which the upper surface of the thorax has been produced backwards to form an overhanging pent-house, of unknown function, and illustrating233 the theory of “Hypertely.”
[Face page 262.
“If we inquire into the manner of the origin of secondary sexual characters of this kind, we shall find that both may have been increased by sexual selection, for a male with a better sickle will succeed more quickly in getting into the proper position for copulation than one with a less perfect mechanism. This assumption does not rest on mere theory, for I was once able ... to observe for a considerable time, under the microscope, a female to whose shell two males were clinging, each trying to push 263the other off. Nevertheless, it seems to me very questionable234 whether the origin of this sickle-claw can be referred to sexual selection, for without this clamping-organ copulation in most Daphnids would not be possible. It was thus not as an advantage which one male had over another that the clamping-sickle evolved, but rather as a necessary acquisition of the whole family, which must have developed in all the species at the same time as the other peculiarities235, and notably those of the shell. The competition of the males among themselves is thus in this case simply an expression of the struggle for existence on the part of the species as such, and it is not a question merely of a character which makes it easier for the males to gain possession of the females, but of one which had necessarily to arise lest the species should become extinct. In other words, in this case Natural Selection and Sexual Selection coincide.
“The case of the antenn? of Moina, which have been modified into grasping organs is quite different; these owe their origin, not to natural selection, but to sexual selection, for antenn? of that kind are not indispensable to the existence of the species, as we can see from the closely related genera, Daphnia and Simocephalus, where the males have quite short, stump-like antenn?, furnished with olfactory filaments not much more numerous than the females possess. Just as these supernumerary olfactory filaments were produced by sexual selection and not by the ordinary natural selection, because those males with the more acute sense of smell had an advantage over those in which it was blunted, so the males of the genus Moina which could grasp most securely had an advantage over those that gripped less firmly, and thus arose these two different kinds of male characteristics. 264Neither of them is of advantage to the species as such, but only to the males in their competition for the possession of the females.”
Much uncertainty236 would seem to exist in regard to two very extraordinary marine species of Copepoda. In one, Calocalanus pavo the male possesses enormous antenn?, and a remarkable development of iridescent feather-like structures at the end of the body, arranged in a sort of open fan-work; the female has what may be called “normal” antenn?, and a brush-like tuft at the end of the body. In the other species—Calocalanus plumulosus—of which the female only is known, there is a similar arrangement of plume237-like structures at the end of the body, but all but one are extremely small; the single plume differs from the rest in being of enormous length. Commonly these structures are regarded as mechanisms to reduce the expenditure238 of energy necessary to keep at the surface of the water, for these creatures inhabit the surface-waters of the open ocean. Many larval Crustacea inhabiting similar areas are in like manner kept afloat, or at any rate aided in keeping afloat, by the excessive development of spines. But if this be the purpose of these strange excrescences of Calocalanus it seems curious that the female of C. pavo should not be similarly provided. If they are to be regarded as secondary sexual characters it is curious that the females of C. pavo and C. plumulosus should be so utterly239 dissimilar. The male of C. plumulosus is unknown. On the whole, it seems more reasonable to regard these strange structures as mechanical aids to swimming rather than as secondary sexual characters.
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1
scorpions
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| n.蝎子( scorpion的名词复数 ) | |
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scorpion
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| n.蝎子，心黑的人，蝎子鞭 | |
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conjugal
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| adj.婚姻的，婚姻性的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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5
crabs
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| n.蟹( crab的名词复数 )；阴虱寄生病；蟹肉v.捕蟹( crab的第三人称单数 ) | |
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6
crab
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| n.螃蟹，偏航，脾气乖戾的人，酸苹果；vi.捕蟹，偏航，发牢骚；vt.使偏航，发脾气 | |
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prawn
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| n.对虾，明虾 | |
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prawns
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| n.对虾，明虾( prawn的名词复数 ) | |
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moths
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| n.蛾( moth的名词复数 ) | |
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extraordinarily
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| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
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posturing
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| 做出某种姿势( posture的现在分词 ) | |
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apparatus
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| n.装置，器械；器具，设备 | |
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abdomen
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| n.腹，下腹(胸部到腿部的部分) | |
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jaws
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| n.口部；嘴 | |
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depressed
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| adj.沮丧的，抑郁的，不景气的，萧条的 | |
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16
ridges
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| n.脊( ridge的名词复数 )；山脊；脊状突起；大气层的)高压脊 | |
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ridge
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| n.山脊；鼻梁；分水岭 | |
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18
shrill
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| adj.尖声的；刺耳的；v尖叫 | |
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chirping
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| 鸟叫，虫鸣( chirp的现在分词 ) | |
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friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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mechanism
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| n.机械装置；机构，结构 | |
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spines
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| n.脊柱( spine的名词复数 )；脊椎；（动植物的）刺；书脊 | |
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24
rustling
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| n. 瑟瑟声，沙沙声 adj. 发沙沙声的 | |
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mechanisms
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| n.机械( mechanism的名词复数 )；机械装置；[生物学] 机制；机械作用 | |
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26
grasshoppers
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| n.蚱蜢( grasshopper的名词复数 )；蝗虫；蚂蚱；（孩子）矮小的 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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unaware
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| a.不知道的，未意识到的 | |
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lure
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| n.吸引人的东西，诱惑物；vt.引诱，吸引 | |
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30
squeal
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| v.发出长而尖的声音；n.长而尖的声音 | |
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31
vibrations
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| n.摆动( vibration的名词复数 )；震动；感受；（偏离平衡位置的）一次性往复振动 | |
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conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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immature
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| adj.未成熟的，发育未全的，未充分发展的 | |
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precludes
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| v.阻止( preclude的第三人称单数 )；排除；妨碍；使…行不通 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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timbre
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| n.音色，音质 | |
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hues
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| 色彩( hue的名词复数 )； 色调； 信仰； 观点 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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likeness
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| n.相像，相似（之处） | |
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elongated
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| v.延长，加长( elongate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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lurk
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| n.潜伏，潜行；v.潜藏，潜伏，埋伏 | |
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43
withered
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| adj. 枯萎的，干瘪的，（人身体的部分器官）因病萎缩的或未发育良好的 动词wither的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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44
exhales
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| v.呼出，发散出( exhale的第三人称单数 )；吐出（肺中的空气、烟等），呼气 | |
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45
pounced
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| v.突然袭击( pounce的过去式和过去分词 )；猛扑；一眼看出；抓住机会（进行抨击） | |
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46
cape
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| n.海角，岬；披肩，短披风 | |
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47
deception
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| n.欺骗，欺诈；骗局，诡计 | |
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48
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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49
hind
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| adj.后面的，后部的 | |
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50
upwards
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| adv.向上，在更高处...以上 | |
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51
laterally
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| ad.横向地；侧面地；旁边地 | |
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52
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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53
diabolically
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54
excrement
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| n.排泄物，粪便 | |
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55
weaver
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| n.织布工；编织者 | |
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56
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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57
overestimated
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| 对（数量）估计过高，对…作过高的评价( overestimate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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58
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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seminal
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| adj.影响深远的；种子的 | |
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liberated
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| a.无拘束的，放纵的 | |
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61
sperm
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| n.精子，精液 | |
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62
joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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63
aperture
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| n.孔，隙，窄的缺口 | |
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64
elastic
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| n.橡皮圈，松紧带；adj.有弹性的；灵活的 | |
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65
collapsed
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| adj.倒塌的 | |
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66
fertilizing
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| v.施肥( fertilize的现在分词 ) | |
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67
deposition
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| n.免职，罢官；作证；沉淀；沉淀物 | |
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68
extinction
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| n.熄灭，消亡，消灭，灭绝，绝种 | |
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69
afflatus
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| n.灵感，神感 | |
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70
investigations
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| （正式的）调查( investigation的名词复数 )； 侦查； 科学研究； 学术研究 | |
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71
specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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72
suffused
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| v.（指颜色、水气等）弥漫于，布满( suffuse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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73
perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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74
amorous
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| adj.多情的；有关爱情的 | |
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75
ardent
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，强烈的，烈性的 | |
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76
maze
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| n.迷宫，八阵图，混乱，迷惑 | |
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77
tilted
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| v. 倾斜的 | |
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78
vertical
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| adj.垂直的，顶点的，纵向的；n.垂直物，垂直的位置 | |
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79
confinement
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| n.幽禁，拘留，监禁；分娩；限制，局限 | |
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80
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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81
clinched
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| v.（尤指两人）互相紧紧抱[扭]住( clinch的过去式和过去分词 )；解决（争端、交易），达成（协议） | |
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82
foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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83
vividly
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| adv.清楚地，鲜明地，生动地 | |
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84
akin
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| adj.同族的，类似的 | |
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85
curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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86
flattened
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| [医]（水）平扁的，弄平的 | |
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87
anterior
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| adj.较早的；在前的 | |
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88
iridescent
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| adj.彩虹色的，闪色的 | |
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89
scent
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| n.气味，香味，香水，线索，嗅觉；v.嗅，发觉 | |
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90
conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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91
watchful
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| adj.注意的，警惕的 | |
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92
persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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93
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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94
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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95
adornment
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| n.装饰；装饰品 | |
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96
proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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97
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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98
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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99
devoured
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| 吞没( devour的过去式和过去分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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100
ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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101
undoing
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| n.毁灭的原因，祸根；破坏，毁灭 | |
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102
persistently
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| ad.坚持地；固执地 | |
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103
connubial
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| adj.婚姻的，夫妇的 | |
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104
conspicuously
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| ad.明显地，惹人注目地 | |
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105
exterminated
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| v.消灭，根绝( exterminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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106
discrepancy
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| n.不同；不符；差异；矛盾 | |
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107
perils
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| 极大危险( peril的名词复数 )； 危险的事（或环境） | |
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108
irresolute
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| adj.无决断的，优柔寡断的，踌躇不定的 | |
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109
ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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110
odds
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| n.让步，机率，可能性，比率；胜败优劣之别 | |
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111
agile
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| adj.敏捷的，灵活的 | |
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112
attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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113
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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114
consorts
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| n.配偶( consort的名词复数 )；（演奏古典音乐的）一组乐师；一组古典乐器；一起v.结伴( consort的第三人称单数 )；交往；相称；调和 | |
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115
nuptial
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| adj.婚姻的，婚礼的 | |
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116
cannibalism
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| n.同类相食；吃人肉 | |
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117
maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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118
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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119
strut
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| v.肿胀，鼓起；大摇大摆地走；炫耀；支撑；撑开；n.高视阔步；支柱，撑杆 | |
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120
withdrawn
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| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
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121
comatose
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| adj.昏睡的，昏迷不醒的 | |
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122
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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123
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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124
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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125
investigator
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| n.研究者，调查者，审查者 | |
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126
spouses
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| n.配偶，夫或妻( spouse的名词复数 ) | |
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127
horrid
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| adj.可怕的；令人惊恐的；恐怖的；极讨厌的 | |
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128
previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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129
amity
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| n.友好关系 | |
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130
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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131
habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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132
dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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133
precipitated
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| v.（突如其来地）使发生( precipitate的过去式和过去分词 )；促成；猛然摔下；使沉淀 | |
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134
spiny
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| adj.多刺的，刺状的；n.多刺的东西 | |
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135
lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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136
subside
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| vi.平静，平息；下沉，塌陷，沉降 | |
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137
disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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138
snares
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| n.陷阱( snare的名词复数 )；圈套；诱人遭受失败（丢脸、损失等）的东西；诱惑物v.用罗网捕捉，诱陷，陷害( snare的第三人称单数 ) | |
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139
noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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140
wariness
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| n. 注意,小心 | |
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141
imminent
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| adj.即将发生的，临近的，逼近的 | |
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142
notably
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| adv.值得注意地，显著地，尤其地，特别地 | |
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143
morose
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| adj.脾气坏的，不高兴的 | |
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144
abstemious
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| adj.有节制的，节俭的 | |
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145
naturalist
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| n.博物学家(尤指直接观察动植物者) | |
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146
disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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147
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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148
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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149
promenade
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| n./v.散步 | |
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150
backwards
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| adv.往回地，向原处，倒，相反，前后倒置地 | |
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151
reluctance
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| n.厌恶，讨厌，勉强，不情愿 | |
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152
prospective
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| adj.预期的，未来的，前瞻性的 | |
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153
vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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154
frenzy
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| n.疯狂，狂热，极度的激动 | |
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155
deficient
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| adj.不足的，不充份的，有缺陷的 | |
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156
purblind
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| adj.半盲的；愚笨的 | |
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157
investigators
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| n.调查者，审查者( investigator的名词复数 ) | |
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158
grovelling
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| adj.卑下的，奴颜婢膝的v.卑躬屈节，奴颜婢膝( grovel的现在分词 )；趴 | |
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159
posture
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| n.姿势，姿态，心态，态度；v.作出某种姿势 | |
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160
gleaning
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| n.拾落穗，拾遗，落穗v.一点点地收集（资料、事实）( glean的现在分词 )；（收割后）拾穗 | |
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161
insistent
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| adj.迫切的，坚持的 | |
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162
scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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163
rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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164
mantis
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| n.螳螂 | |
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165
devouring
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| 吞没( devour的现在分词 )； 耗尽； 津津有味地看； 狼吞虎咽地吃光 | |
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166
jointed
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| 有接缝的 | |
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167
aquatic
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| adj.水生的，水栖的 | |
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168
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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169
foretold
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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170
marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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171
delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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172
strand
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| vt.使（船）搁浅，使（某人）困于（某地） | |
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173
flexed
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| adj.[医]曲折的，屈曲v.屈曲( flex的过去式和过去分词 )；弯曲；（为准备大干而）显示实力；摩拳擦掌 | |
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174
delta
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| n.（流的）角洲 | |
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175
burrow
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| vt.挖掘(洞穴)；钻进；vi.挖洞；翻寻；n.地洞 | |
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176
trespassed
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| （trespass的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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177
gregarious
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| adj.群居的，喜好群居的 | |
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178
battalions
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| n.（陆军的）一营（大约有一千兵士）( battalion的名词复数 )；协同作战的部队；军队；（组织在一起工作的）队伍 | |
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179
burrows
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| n.地洞( burrow的名词复数 )v.挖掘（洞穴），挖洞( burrow的第三人称单数 )；翻寻 | |
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180
sifting
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| n.筛，过滤v.筛( sift的现在分词 )；筛滤；细查；详审 | |
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181
entrenchment
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| n.壕沟，防御设施 | |
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182
preyed
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| v.掠食( prey的过去式和过去分词 )；掠食；折磨；（人）靠欺诈为生 | |
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183
suffocated
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| （使某人）窒息而死( suffocate的过去式和过去分词 )； （将某人）闷死； 让人感觉闷热； 憋气 | |
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184
outright
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| adv.坦率地；彻底地；立即；adj.无疑的；彻底的 | |
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185
advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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186
rigidly
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| adv.刻板地，僵化地 | |
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187
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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188
elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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189
catching
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| adj.易传染的，有魅力的，迷人的，接住 | |
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190
crouch
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| v.蹲伏，蜷缩，低头弯腰；n.蹲伏 | |
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191
remonstrance
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| n抗议，抱怨 | |
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192
croaking
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| v.呱呱地叫( croak的现在分词 )；用粗的声音说 | |
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193
emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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194
confirmation
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| n.证实，确认，批准 | |
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195
burrowing
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| v.挖掘（洞穴），挖洞( burrow的现在分词 )；翻寻 | |
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196
barricade
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| n.路障，栅栏，障碍；vt.设路障挡住 | |
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197
literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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198
bestowing
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| 砖窑中砖堆上层已烧透的砖 | |
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199
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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200
brandished
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| v.挥舞( brandish的过去式和过去分词 )；炫耀 | |
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201
demure
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| adj.严肃的；端庄的 | |
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202
flirt
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| v.调情，挑逗，调戏；n.调情者，卖俏者 | |
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203
frantic
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| adj.狂乱的，错乱的，激昂的 | |
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204
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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205
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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206
puny
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| adj.微不足道的，弱小的 | |
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207
wielding
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的现在分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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208
passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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209
beholding
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| v.看，注视( behold的现在分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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210
crustacean
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| n.甲壳动物；adj.甲壳纲的 | |
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211
penetrates
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| v.穿过( penetrate的第三人称单数 )；刺入；了解；渗透 | |
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212
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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213
reigns
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| n.君主的统治( reign的名词复数 )；君主统治时期；任期；当政期 | |
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214
downwards
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| adj./adv.向下的（地），下行的（地） | |
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215
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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216
olfactory
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| adj.嗅觉的 | |
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217
crook
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| v.使弯曲；n.小偷，骗子，贼；弯曲(处) | |
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218
subjugating
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| v.征服，降伏( subjugate的现在分词 ) | |
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219
pugnacious
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| adj.好斗的 | |
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220
peculiarity
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| n.独特性，特色；特殊的东西；怪癖 | |
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221
defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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222
emanating
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| v.从…处传出，传出( emanate的现在分词 )；产生，表现，显示 | |
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223
filaments
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| n.（电灯泡的）灯丝( filament的名词复数 )；丝极；细丝；丝状物 | |
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224
aberrant
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| adj.畸变的，异常的，脱离常轨的 | |
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225
herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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226
swarming
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| 密集( swarm的现在分词 )； 云集； 成群地移动； 蜜蜂或其他飞行昆虫成群地飞来飞去 | |
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227
specialized
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| adj.专门的，专业化的 | |
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228
retention
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| n.保留，保持，保持力，记忆力 | |
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229
sickle
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| n.镰刀 | |
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230
stumps
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| （被砍下的树的）树桩( stump的名词复数 )； 残肢； （板球三柱门的）柱； 残余部分 | |
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231
antenna
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| n.触角，触须；天线 | |
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232
bug
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| n.虫子；故障；窃听器；vt.纠缠；装窃听器 | |
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233
illustrating
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的现在分词 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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234
questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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235
peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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236
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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237
plume
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| n.羽毛；v.整理羽毛，骚首弄姿，用羽毛装饰 | |
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238
expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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239
utterly
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| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
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