It is as elements of social structure—conventional facts—that leisure and ownership are matters of interest for the purpose in hand. An habitual3 neglect of work does not constitute a leisure class; neither does the mechanical fact of use and consumption constitute ownership. The present inquiry4, therefore, is not concerned with the beginning of indolence, nor with the beginning of the appropriation5 of useful articles to individual consumption. The point in question is the origin and nature of a conventional leisure class on the one hand and the beginnings of individual ownership as a conventional right or equitable6 claim on the other hand.
The early differentiation7 out of which the distinction between a leisure and a working class arises is a division maintained between men's and women's work in the lower stages of barbarism. Likewise the earliest form of ownership is an ownership of the women by the able bodied men of the community. The facts may be expressed in more general terms, and truer to the import of the barbarian8 theory of life, by saying that it is an ownership of the woman by the man.
There was undoubtedly9 some appropriation of useful articles before the custom of appropriating women arose. The usages of existing archaic10 communities in which there is no ownership of women is warrant for such a view. In all communities the members, both male and female, habitually11 appropriate to their individual use a variety of useful things; but these useful things are not thought of as owned by the person who appropriates and consumes them. The habitual appropriation and consumption of certain slight personal effects goes on without raising the question of ownership; that is to say, the question of a conventional, equitable claim to extraneous12 things.
The ownership of women begins in the lower barbarian stages of culture, apparently13 with the seizure14 of female captives. The original reason for the seizure and appropriation of women seems to have been their usefulness as trophies15. The practice of seizing women from the enemy as trophies, gave rise to a form of ownership-marriage, resulting in a household with a male head. This was followed by an extension of slavery to other captives and inferiors, besides women, and by an extension of ownership-marriage to other women than those seized from the enemy. The outcome of emulation16 under the circumstances of a predatory life, therefore, has been on the one hand a form of marriage resting on coercion17, and on the other hand the custom of ownership. The two institutions are not distinguishable in the initial phase of their development; both arise from the desire of the successful men to put their prowess in evidence by exhibiting some durable18 result of their exploits. Both also minister to that propensity19 for mastery which pervades20 all predatory communities. From the ownership of women the concept of ownership extends itself to include the products of their industry, and so there arises the ownership of things as well as of persons.
In this way a consistent system of property in goods is gradually installed. And although in the latest stages of the development, the serviceability of goods for consumption has come to be the most obtrusive21 element of their value, still, wealth has by no means yet lost its utility as a honorific evidence of the owner's prepotence.
Wherever the institution of private property is found, even in a slightly developed form, the economic process bears the character of a struggle between men for the possession of goods. It has been customary in economic theory, and especially among those economists22 who adhere with least faltering23 to the body of modernised classical doctrines24, to construe25 this struggle for wealth as being substantially a struggle for subsistence. Such is, no doubt, its character in large part during the earlier and less efficient phases of industry. Such is also its character in all cases where the "niggardliness26 of nature" is so strict as to afford but a scanty27 livelihood28 to the community in return for strenuous29 and unremitting application to the business of getting the means of subsistence. But in all progressing communities an advance is presently made beyond this early stage of technological30 development. Industrial efficiency is presently carried to such a pitch as to afford something appreciably31 more than a bare livelihood to those engaged in the industrial process. It has not been unusual for economic theory to speak of the further struggle for wealth on this new industrial basis as a competition for an increase of the comforts of life,—primarily for an increase of the physical comforts which the consumption of goods affords.
The end of acquisition and accumulation is conventionally held to be the consumption of the goods accumulated—whether it is consumption directly by the owner of the goods or by the household attached to him and for this purpose identified with him in theory. This is at least felt to be the economically legitimate32 end of acquisition, which alone it is incumbent33 on the theory to take account of. Such consumption may of course be conceived to serve the consumer's physical wants—his physical comfort—or his so-called higher wants—spiritual, aesthetic34, intellectual, or what not; the latter class of wants being served indirectly35 by an expenditure36 of goods, after the fashion familiar to all economic readers.
But it is only when taken in a sense far removed from its naive37 meaning that consumption of goods can be said to afford the incentive38 from which accumulation invariably proceeds. The motive39 that lies at the root of ownership is emulation; and the same motive of emulation continues active in the further development of the institution to which it has given rise and in the development of all those features of the social structure which this institution of ownership touches. The possession of wealth confers honour; it is an invidious distinction. Nothing equally cogent40 can be said for the consumption of goods, nor for any other conceivable incentive to acquisition, and especially not for any incentive to accumulation of wealth.
It is of course not to be overlooked that in a community where nearly all goods are private property the necessity of earning a livelihood is a powerful and ever present incentive for the poorer members of the community. The need of subsistence and of an increase of physical comfort may for a time be the dominant41 motive of acquisition for those classes who are habitually employed at manual labour, whose subsistence is on a precarious42 footing, who possess little and ordinarily accumulate little; but it will appear in the course of the discussion that even in the case of these impecunious43 classes the predominance of the motive of physical want is not so decided44 as has sometimes been assumed. On the other hand, so far as regards those members and classes of the community who are chiefly concerned in the accumulation of wealth, the incentive of subsistence or of physical comfort never plays a considerable part. Ownership began and grew into a human institution on grounds unrelated to the subsistence minimum. The dominant incentive was from the outset the invidious distinction attaching to wealth, and, save temporarily and by exception, no other motive has usurped45 the primacy at any later stage of the development.
Property set out with being booty held as trophies of the successful raid. So long as the group had departed and so long as it still stood in close contact with other hostile groups, the utility of things or persons owned lay chiefly in an invidious comparison between their possessor and the enemy from whom they were taken. The habit of distinguishing between the interests of the individual and those of the group to which he belongs is apparently a later growth. Invidious comparison between the possessor of the honorific booty and his less successful neighbours within the group was no doubt present early as an element of the utility of the things possessed46, though this was not at the outset the chief element of their value. The man's prowess was still primarily the group's prowess, and the possessor of the booty felt himself to be primarily the keeper of the honour of his group. This appreciation47 of exploit from the communal48 point of view is met with also at later stages of social growth, especially as regards the laurels49 of war.
But as soon as the custom of individual ownership begins to gain consistency50, the point of view taken in making the invidious comparison on which private property rests will begin to change. Indeed, the one change is but the reflex of the other. The initial phase of ownership, the phase of acquisition by naive seizure and conversion51, begins to pass into the subsequent stage of an incipient52 organization of industry on the basis of private property (in slaves); the horde53 develops into a more or less self-sufficing industrial community; possessions then come to be valued not so much as evidence of successful foray, but rather as evidence of the prepotence of the possessor of these goods over other individuals within the community. The invidious comparison now becomes primarily a comparison of the owner with the other members of the group. Property is still of the nature of trophy54, but, with the cultural advance, it becomes more and more a trophy of successes scored in the game of ownership carried on between the members of the group under the quasi-peaceable methods of nomadic55 life.
Gradually, as industrial activity further displaced predatory activity in the community's everyday life and in men's habits of thought, accumulated property more and more replaces trophies of predatory exploit as the conventional exponent56 of prepotence and success. With the growth of settled industry, therefore, the possession of wealth gains in relative importance and effectiveness as a customary basis of repute and esteem57. Not that esteem ceases to be awarded on the basis of other, more direct evidence of prowess; not that successful predatory aggression58 or warlike exploit ceases to call out the approval and admiration59 of the crowd, or to stir the envy of the less successful competitors; but the opportunities for gaining distinction by means of this direct manifestation60 of superior force grow less available both in scope and frequency. At the same time opportunities for industrial aggression, and for the accumulation of property, increase in scope and availability. And it is even more to the point that property now becomes the most easily recognised evidence of a reputable degree of success as distinguished61 from heroic or signal achievement. It therefore becomes the conventional basis of esteem. Its possession in some amount becomes necessary in order to any reputable standing62 in the community. It becomes indispensable to accumulate, to acquire property, in order to retain one's good name. When accumulated goods have in this way once become the accepted badge of efficiency, the possession of wealth presently assumes the character of an independent and definitive63 basis of esteem. The possession of goods, whether acquired aggressively by one's own exertion64 or passively by transmission through inheritance from others, becomes a conventional basis of reputability. The possession of wealth, which was at the outset valued simply as an evidence of efficiency, becomes, in popular apprehension65, itself a meritorious66 act. Wealth is now itself intrinsically honourable67 and confers honour on its possessor. By a further refinement68, wealth acquired passively by transmission from ancestors or other antecedents presently becomes even more honorific than wealth acquired by the possessor's own effort; but this distinction belongs at a later stage in the evolution of the pecuniary69 culture and will be spoken of in its place.
Prowess and exploit may still remain the basis of award of the highest popular esteem, although the possession of wealth has become the basis of common place reputability and of a blameless social standing. The predatory instinct and the consequent approbation70 of predatory efficiency are deeply ingrained in the habits of thought of those peoples who have passed under the discipline of a protracted71 predatory culture. According to popular award, the highest honours within human reach may, even yet, be those gained by an unfolding of extraordinary predatory efficiency in war, or by a quasi-predatory efficiency in statecraft; but for the purposes of a commonplace decent standing in the community these means of repute have been replaced by the acquisition and accumulation of goods. In order to stand well in the eyes of the community, it is necessary to come up to a certain, somewhat indefinite, conventional standard of wealth; just as in the earlier predatory stage it is necessary for the barbarian man to come up to the tribe's standard of physical endurance, cunning, and skill at arms. A certain standard of wealth in the one case, and of prowess in the other, is a necessary condition of reputability, and anything in excess of this normal amount is meritorious.
Those members of the community who fall short of this, somewhat indefinite, normal degree of prowess or of property suffer in the esteem of their fellow-men; and consequently they suffer also in their own esteem, since the usual basis of self-respect is the respect accorded by one's neighbours. Only individuals with an aberrant72 temperament73 can in the long run retain their self-esteem in the face of the disesteem of their fellows. Apparent exceptions to the rule are met with, especially among people with strong religious convictions. But these apparent exceptions are scarcely real exceptions, since such persons commonly fall back on the putative74 approbation of some supernatural witness of their deeds.
So soon as the possession of property becomes the basis of popular esteem, therefore, it becomes also a requisite75 to the complacency which we call self-respect. In any community where goods are held in severalty it is necessary, in order to his own peace of mind, that an individual should possess as large a portion of goods as others with whom he is accustomed to class himself; and it is extremely gratifying to possess something more than others. But as fast as a person makes new acquisitions, and becomes accustomed to the resulting new standard of wealth, the new standard forthwith ceases to afford appreciably greater satisfaction than the earlier standard did. The tendency in any case is constantly to make the present pecuniary standard the point of departure for a fresh increase of wealth; and this in turn gives rise to a new standard of sufficiency and a new pecuniary classification of one's self as compared with one's neighbours. So far as concerns the present question, the end sought by accumulation is to rank high in comparison with the rest of the community in point of pecuniary strength. So long as the comparison is distinctly unfavourable to himself, the normal, average individual will live in chronic77 dissatisfaction with his present lot; and when he has reached what may be called the normal pecuniary standard of the community, or of his class in the community, this chronic dissatisfaction will give place to a restless straining to place a wider and ever-widening pecuniary interval78 between himself and this average standard. The invidious comparison can never become so favourable76 to the individual making it that he would not gladly rate himself still higher relatively79 to his competitors in the struggle for pecuniary reputability.
In the nature of the case, the desire for wealth can scarcely be satiated in any individual instance, and evidently a satiation of the average or general desire for wealth is out of the question. However widely, or equally, or "fairly", it may be distributed, no general increase of the community's wealth can make any approach to satiating this need, the ground of which is the desire of every one to excel every one else in the accumulation of goods. If, as is sometimes assumed, the incentive to accumulation were the want of subsistence or of physical comfort, then the aggregate80 economic wants of a community might conceivably be satisfied at some point in the advance of industrial efficiency; but since the struggle is substantially a race for reputability on the basis of an invidious comparison, no approach to a definitive attainment81 is possible.
What has just been said must not be taken to mean that there are no other incentives82 to acquisition and accumulation than this desire to excel in pecuniary standing and so gain the esteem and envy of one's fellow-men. The desire for added comfort and security from want is present as a motive at every stage of the process of accumulation in a modern industrial community; although the standard of sufficiency in these respects is in turn greatly affected83 by the habit of pecuniary emulation. To a great extent this emulation shapes the methods and selects the objects of expenditure for personal comfort and decent livelihood.
Besides this, the power conferred by wealth also affords a motive to accumulation. That propensity for purposeful activity and that repugnance84 to all futility85 of effort which belong to man by virtue86 of his character as an agent do not desert him when he emerges from the naive communal culture where the dominant note of life is the unanalysed and undifferentiated solidarity87 of the individual with the group with which his life is bound up. When he enters upon the predatory stage, where self-seeking in the narrower sense becomes the dominant note, this propensity goes with him still, as the pervasive88 trait that shapes his scheme of life. The propensity for achievement and the repugnance to futility remain the underlying89 economic motive. The propensity changes only in the form of its expression and in the proximate objects to which it directs the man's activity. Under the regime of individual ownership the most available means of visibly achieving a purpose is that afforded by the acquisition and accumulation of goods; and as the self-regarding antithesis90 between man and man reaches fuller consciousness, the propensity for achievement—the instinct of workmanship—tends more and more to shape itself into a straining to excel others in pecuniary achievement. Relative success, tested by an invidious pecuniary comparison with other men, becomes the conventional end of action. The currently accepted legitimate end of effort becomes the achievement of a favourable comparison with other men; and therefore the repugnance to futility to a good extent coalesces91 with the incentive of emulation. It acts to accentuate92 the struggle for pecuniary reputability by visiting with a sharper disapproval93 all shortcoming and all evidence of shortcoming in point of pecuniary success. Purposeful effort comes to mean, primarily, effort directed to or resulting in a more creditable showing of accumulated wealth. Among the motives94 which lead men to accumulate wealth, the primacy, both in scope and intensity95, therefore, continues to belong to this motive of pecuniary emulation.
In making use of the term "invidious", it may perhaps be unnecessary to remark, there is no intention to extol96 or depreciate97, or to commend or deplore98 any of the phenomena99 which the word is used to characterise. The term is used in a technical sense as describing a comparison of persons with a view to rating and grading them in respect of relative worth or value—in an aesthetic or moral sense—and so awarding and defining the relative degrees of complacency with which they may legitimately100 be contemplated101 by themselves and by others. An invidious comparison is a process of valuation of persons in respect of worth.
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1
emergence
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| n.浮现，显现，出现，（植物）突出体 | |
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inchoate
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| adj.才开始的，初期的 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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appropriation
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| n.拨款，批准支出 | |
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equitable
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| adj.公平的；公正的 | |
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differentiation
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| n.区别，区分 | |
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barbarian
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| n.野蛮人；adj.野蛮(人)的；未开化的 | |
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9
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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archaic
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| adj.(语言、词汇等)古代的，已不通用的 | |
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habitually
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| ad.习惯地，通常地 | |
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extraneous
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| adj.体外的；外来的；外部的 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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seizure
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| n.没收；占有；抵押 | |
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trophies
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| n.（为竞赛获胜者颁发的）奖品( trophy的名词复数 )；奖杯；（尤指狩猎或战争中获得的）纪念品；（用于比赛或赛跑名称）奖 | |
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emulation
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| n.竞争；仿效 | |
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coercion
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| n.强制，高压统治 | |
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durable
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| adj.持久的，耐久的 | |
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propensity
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| n.倾向；习性 | |
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pervades
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| v.遍及，弥漫( pervade的第三人称单数 ) | |
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obtrusive
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| adj.显眼的；冒失的 | |
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economists
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| n.经济学家，经济专家( economist的名词复数 ) | |
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faltering
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| 犹豫的，支吾的，蹒跚的 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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25
construe
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| v.翻译，解释 | |
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niggardliness
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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livelihood
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| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
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strenuous
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| adj.奋发的，使劲的；紧张的；热烈的，狂热的 | |
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technological
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| adj.技术的；工艺的 | |
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appreciably
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| adv.相当大地 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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incumbent
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| adj.成为责任的，有义务的；现任的，在职的 | |
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aesthetic
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| adj.美学的，审美的，有美感 | |
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indirectly
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| adv.间接地，不直接了当地 | |
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expenditure
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| n.(时间、劳力、金钱等)支出；使用，消耗 | |
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naive
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| adj.幼稚的，轻信的；天真的 | |
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incentive
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| n.刺激；动力；鼓励；诱因；动机 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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cogent
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| adj.强有力的，有说服力的 | |
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dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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precarious
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| adj.不安定的，靠不住的；根据不足的 | |
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impecunious
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| adj.不名一文的，贫穷的 | |
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decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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45
usurped
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| 篡夺，霸占( usurp的过去式和过去分词 )； 盗用； 篡夺，篡权 | |
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46
possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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48
communal
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| adj.公有的，公共的，公社的，公社制的 | |
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49
laurels
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| n.桂冠，荣誉 | |
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50
consistency
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| n.一贯性，前后一致，稳定性；(液体的)浓度 | |
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51
conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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52
incipient
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| adj.起初的，发端的，初期的 | |
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53
horde
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| n.群众，一大群 | |
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trophy
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| n.优胜旗，奖品，奖杯，战胜品，纪念品 | |
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55
nomadic
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| adj.流浪的；游牧的 | |
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56
exponent
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| n.倡导者，拥护者；代表人物；指数，幂 | |
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57
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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aggression
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| n.进攻，侵略，侵犯，侵害 | |
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59
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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60
manifestation
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| n.表现形式；表明；现象 | |
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61
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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definitive
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| adj.确切的，权威性的；最后的，决定性的 | |
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64
exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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meritorious
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| adj.值得赞赏的 | |
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honourable
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| adj.可敬的；荣誉的，光荣的 | |
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refinement
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| n.文雅；高尚；精美；精制；精炼 | |
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69
pecuniary
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| adj.金钱的；金钱上的 | |
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70
approbation
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| n.称赞；认可 | |
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protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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aberrant
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| adj.畸变的，异常的，脱离常轨的 | |
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temperament
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| n.气质，性格，性情 | |
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putative
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| adj.假定的 | |
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requisite
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| adj.需要的，必不可少的；n.必需品 | |
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favourable
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| adj.赞成的，称赞的，有利的，良好的，顺利的 | |
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chronic
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| adj.(疾病)长期未愈的，慢性的；极坏的 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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incentives
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| 激励某人做某事的事物( incentive的名词复数 )； 刺激； 诱因； 动机 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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repugnance
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| n.嫌恶 | |
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futility
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| n.无用 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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solidarity
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| n.团结；休戚相关 | |
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pervasive
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| adj.普遍的；遍布的，(到处)弥漫的；渗透性的 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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antithesis
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| n.对立；相对 | |
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coalesces
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| v.联合，合并( coalesce的第三人称单数 ) | |
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accentuate
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| v.着重，强调 | |
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disapproval
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| n.反对，不赞成 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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extol
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| v.赞美，颂扬 | |
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depreciate
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| v.降价，贬值，折旧 | |
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deplore
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| vt.哀叹，对...深感遗憾 | |
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phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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legitimately
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| ad.合法地；正当地，合理地 | |
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contemplated
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| adj. 预期的 动词contemplate的过去分词形式 | |
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