This nation was formed under pioneer ideals. During three centuries after Captain John Smith struck the first blow at the American forest on the eastern edge of the continent, the pioneers were abandoning settled society for the wilderness2, seeking, for generation after generation, new frontiers. Their experiences left abiding3 influences upon the ideas and purposes of the nation. Indeed the older settled regions themselves were shaped profoundly by the very fact that the whole nation was pioneering and that in the development of the West the East had its own part.
The first ideal of the pioneer was that of conquest. It was his task to fight with nature for the chance to exist. Not as in older countries did this contest take place in a mythical4 past, told in folk lore5 and epic6. It has been continuous to our own day. Facing each generation of pioneers was the unmastered continent. Vast forests blocked the way; mountainous ramparts interposed; desolate7, grass-clad prairies, barren oceans of rolling plains, arid8 deserts, and a fierce race of savages9, all had to be met and defeated. The rifle and the ax are the symbols of the backwoods pioneer. They meant [270]a training in aggressive courage, in domination, in directness of action, in destructiveness.
To the pioneer the forest was no friendly resource for posterity10, no object of careful economy. He must wage a hand-to-hand war upon it, cutting and burning a little space to let in the light upon a dozen acres of hard-won soil, and year after year expanding the clearing into new woodlands against the stubborn resistance of primeval trunks and matted roots. He made war against the rank fertility of the soil. While new worlds of virgin11 land lay ever just beyond, it was idle to expect the pioneer to stay his hand and turn to scientific farming. Indeed, as Secretary Wilson has said, the pioneer would, in that case, have raised wheat that no one wanted to eat, corn to store on the farm, and cotton not worth the picking.
Thus, fired with the ideal of subduing12 the wilderness, the destroying pioneer fought his way across the continent, masterful and wasteful13, preparing the way by seeking the immediate14 thing, rejoicing in rude strength and wilful16 achievement.
But even this backwoodsman was more than a mere17 destroyer. He had visions. He was finder as well as fighter—the trail-maker for civilization, the inventor of new ways. Although Rudyard Kipling's "Foreloper"[270:1] deals with the English pioneer in lands beneath the Southern Cross, yet the poem portrays18 American traits as well:
And he shall see old planets pass and alien stars arise,
[271]
He shall desire loneliness and his desire shall bring
Hard on his heels, a thousand wheels, a people and a king.
"He shall come back on his own track, and by his scarce cool camp,
There shall he meet the roaring street, the derrick and the stamp;
This quest after the unknown, this yearning30 "beyond the sky line, where the strange roads go down," is of the very essence of the backwoods pioneer, even though he was unconscious of its spiritual significance.
The pioneer was taught in the school of experience that the crops of one area would not do for a new frontier; that the scythe31 of the clearing must be replaced by the reaper32 of the prairies. He was forced to make old tools serve new uses; to shape former habits, institutions and ideas to changed conditions; and to find new means when the old proved inapplicable. He was building a new society as well as breaking new soil; he had the ideal of nonconformity and of change. He rebelled against the conventional.
Besides the ideals of conquest and of discovery, the pioneer had the ideal of personal development, free from social and governmental constraint33. He came from a civilization based on individual competition, and he brought the conception with him to the wilderness where a wealth of resources, and innumerable opportunities gave it a new scope. The prizes were for the keenest and the strongest; for them were the best bottom lands, the finest timber tracts34, the best salt-springs, the richest ore beds; and not only these natural gifts, but also the opportunities afforded in the midst of a forming society. Here were mill sites, town sites, transportation lines, [272]banking centers, openings in the law, in politics—all the varied35 chances for advancement36 afforded in a rapidly developing society where everything was open to him who knew how to seize the opportunity.
The squatter37 enforced his claim to lands even against the government's title by the use of extra-legal combinations and force. He appealed to lynch law with little hesitation38. He was impatient of any governmental restriction39 upon his individual right to deal with the wilderness.
In our own day we sometimes hear of congressmen sent to jail for violating land laws; but the different spirit in the pioneer days may be illustrated40 by a speech of Delegate Sibley of Minnesota in Congress in 1852. In view of the fact that he became the State's first governor, a regent of its university, president of its historical society, and a doctor of laws of Princeton, we may assume that he was a pillar of society. He said:
The government has watched its public domain41 with jealous eye, and there are now enactments42 upon your statute43 books, aimed at the trespassers upon it, which should be expunged44 as a disgrace to the country and to the nineteenth century. Especially is he pursued with unrelenting severity, who has dared to break the silence of the primeval forest by the blows of the American ax. The hardy45 lumberman who has penetrated47 to the remotest wilds of the Northwest, to drag from their recesses48 the materials for building up towns and cities in the great valley of the Mississippi, has been particularly marked out as a victim. After enduring all the privations and subjecting himself to all the perils49 incident to his vocation—when [273]he has toiled50 for months to add by his honest labor51 to the comfort of his fellow men, and to the aggregate52 wealth of the nation, he finds himself suddenly in the clutches of the law for trespassing53 on the public domain. The proceeds of his long winter's work are reft from him, and exposed to public sale for the benefit of his paternal54 government . . . and the object of this oppression and wrong is further harassed55 by vexatious law proceedings56 against him.
Sibley's protest in congress against these "outrages57" by which the northern lumbermen were "harassed" in their work of what would now be called stealing government timber, aroused no protest from his colleagues. No president called this congressman58 an undesirable59 citizen or gave him over to the courts.
Thus many of the pioneers, following the ideal of the right of the individual to rise, subordinated the rights of the nation and posterity to the desire that the country should be "developed" and that the individual should advance with as little interference as possible. Squatter doctrines61 and individualism have left deep traces upon American conceptions.
But quite as deeply fixed63 in the pioneer's mind as the ideal of individualism was the ideal of democracy. He had a passionate64 hatred65 for aristocracy, monopoly and special privilege; he believed in simplicity66, economy and in the rule of the people. It is true that he honored the successful man, and that he strove in all ways to advance himself. But the West was so free and so vast, the barriers to individual achievement were so remote, that the pioneer was hardly conscious that any danger to equality could come from his competition for natural resources. He thought of democracy as in some [274]way the result of our political institutions, and he failed to see that it was primarily the result of the free lands and immense opportunities which surrounded him. Occasional statesmen voiced the idea that American democracy was based on the abundance of unoccupied land, even in the first debates on the public domain.
This early recognition of the influence of abundance of land in shaping the economic conditions of American democracy is peculiarly significant to-day in view of the practical exhaustion68 of the supply of cheap arable69 public lands open to the poor man, and the coincident development of labor unions to keep up wages.
Certain it is that the strength of democratic movements has chiefly lain in the regions of the pioneer. "Our governments tend too much to democracy," wrote Izard, of South Carolina, to Jefferson, in 1785. "A handicraftsman thinks an apprenticeship71 necessary to make him acquainted with his business. But our backcountrymen are of the opinion that a politician may be born just as well as a poet."
The Revolutionary ideas, of course, gave a great impetus72 to democracy, and in substantially every colony there was a double revolution, one for independence and the other for the overthrow74 of aristocratic control. But in the long run the effective force behind American democracy was the presence of the practically free land into which men might escape from oppression or inequalities which burdened them in the older settlements. This possibility compelled the coastwise States to liberalize the franchise75; and it prevented the formation of a dominant76 class, whether based on property or on custom. Among the pioneers one man was as good as his neighbor. He had the same chance; conditions were simple and free. Economic equality fostered political equality. An optimistic and buoyant belief in the worth of the plain people, [275]a devout77 faith in man prevailed in the West. Democracy became almost the religion of the pioneer. He held with passionate devotion the idea that he was building under freedom a new society, based on self government, and for the welfare of the average man.
And yet even as he proclaimed the gospel of democracy the pioneer showed a vague apprehension78 lest the time be short—lest equality should not endure—lest he might fall behind in the ascending79 movement of Western society. This led him on in feverish80 haste to acquire advantages as though he only half believed his dream. "Before him lies a boundless81 continent," wrote De Tocqueville, in the days when pioneer democracy was triumphant82 under Jackson, "and he urges forward as if time pressed and he was afraid of finding no room for his exertions83."
Even while Jackson lived, labor leaders and speculative84 thinkers were demanding legislation to place a limit on the amount of land which one person might acquire and to provide free farms. De Tocqueville saw the signs of change. "Between the workman and the master," he said, "there are frequent relations but no real association. . . . I am of the opinion, upon the whole, that the manufacturing aristocracy which is growing up under our eyes is one of the harshest which ever existed in the world; . . . if ever a permanent inequality, of conditions and aristocracy again penetrate46 into the world, it may be predicted that this is the gate by which they will enter." But the sanative influences of the free spaces of the West were destined85 to ameliorate labor's condition, to afford new hopes and new faith to pioneer democracy, and to postpone86 the problem.
As the settlers advanced into provinces whose area dwarfed87 that of the older sections, pioneer democracy itself began to undergo changes, both in its composition and in its processes [276]of expansion. At the close of the Civil War, when settlement was spreading with greatest vigor88 across the Mississippi, the railways began their work as colonists89. Their land grants from the government, amounting altogether by 1871 to an area five times that of the State of Pennsylvania, demanded purchasers, and so the railroads pioneered the way for the pioneer.
The homestead law increased the tide of settlers. The improved farm machinery90 made it possible for him to go boldly out on to the prairie and to deal effectively with virgin soil in farms whose cultivated area made the old clearings of the backwoodsman seem mere garden plots. Two things resulted from these conditions, which profoundly modified pioneer ideals. In the first place the new form of colonization91 demanded an increasing use of capital; and the rapidity of the formation of towns, the speed with which society developed, made men the more eager to secure bank credit to deal with the new West. This made the pioneer more dependent on the eastern economic forces. In the second place the farmer became dependent as never before on transportation companies. In this speculative movement the railroads, finding that they had pressed too far in advance and had issued stock to freely for their earnings92 to justify93 the face of the investment, came into collision with the pioneer on the question of rates and of discriminations. The Greenback movement and the Granger movements were appeals to government to prevent what the pioneer thought to be invasions of pioneer democracy.
As the western settler began to face the problem of magnitude in the areas he was occupying; as he began to adjust his life to the modern forces of capital and to complex productive processes; as he began to see that, go where he would, the question of credit and currency, of transportation and distribution in general conditioned his success, he sought [277]relief by legislation. He began to lose his primitive94 attitude of individualism, government began to look less like a necessary evil and more like an instrument for the perpetuation95 of his democratic ideals. In brief, the defenses of the pioneer democrat70 began to shift, from free land to legislation, from the ideal of individualism to the ideal of social control through regulation by law. He had no sympathy with a radical96 reconstruction97 of society by the revolution of socialism; even his alliances with the movement of organized labor, which paralleled that of organized capital in the East, were only half-hearted. But he was becoming alarmed over the future of the free democratic ideal. The wisdom of his legislation it is not necessary to discuss here. The essential point is that his conception of the right of government to control social process had undergone a change. He was coming to regard legislation as an instrument of social construction. The individualism of the Kentucky pioneer of 1796 was giving way to the Populism of the Kansas pioneer of 1896.
The later days of pioneer democracy are too familiar to require much exposition. But they are profoundly significant. As the pioneer doctrine62 of free competition for the resources of the nation revealed its tendencies; as individual, corporation and trust, like the pioneer, turned increasingly to legal devices to promote their contrasting ideals, the natural resources were falling into private possession. Tides of alien immigrants were surging into the country to replace the old American stock in the labor market, to lower the standard of living and to increase the pressure of population upon the land. These recent foreigners have lodged98 almost exclusively in the dozen great centers of industrial life, and there they have accented the antagonisms99 between capital and labor by the fact that the labor supply has become increasingly foreign born, and recruited from nationalities who arouse no [278]sympathy on the part of capital and little on the part of the general public. Class distinctions are accented by national prejudices, and democracy is thereby100 invaded. But even in the dull brains of great masses of these unfortunates from southern and eastern Europe the idea of America as the land of freedom and of opportunity to rise, the land of pioneer democratic ideals, has found lodgment, and if it is given time and is not turned into revolutionary lines it will fructify101.
As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited. In place of the old lavish102 opportunity for the settler to set his stakes where he would, there were frantic103 rushes of thousands of eager pioneers across the line of newly opened Indian reservations. Even in 1889, when Oklahoma was opened to settlement, twenty thousand settlers crowded at the boundaries, like straining athletes, waiting the bugle104 note that should start the race across the line. To-day great crowds gather at the land lotteries105 of the government as the remaining fragments of the public domain are flung to hungry settlers.
Hundreds of thousands of pioneers from the Middle West have crossed the national boundary into Canadian wheat fields eager to find farms for their children, although under an alien flag. And finally the government has taken to itself great areas of arid land for reclamation106 by costly107 irrigation projects whereby to furnish twenty-acre tracts in the desert to settlers under careful regulation of water rights. The government supplies the capital for huge irrigation dams and reservoirs and builds them itself. It owns and operates quarries108, coal mines and timber to facilitate this work. It seeks the remotest regions of the earth for crops suitable for these areas. It analyzes109 the soils and tells the farmer what and when and how to plant. It has even considered the rental110 [279]to manufacturers of the surplus water, electrical and steam power generated in its irrigation works and the utilization111 of this power to extract nitrates from the air to replenish112 worn-out soils. The pioneer of the arid regions must be both a capitalist and the protégé of the government.
Consider the contrast between the conditions of the pioneers at the beginning and at the end of this period of development. Three hundred years ago adventurous113 Englishmen on the coast of Virginia began the attack on the wilderness. Three years ago the President of the United States summoned the governors of forty-six states to deliberate upon the danger of the exhaustion of the natural resources of the nation.[279:1]
The pressure of population upon the food supply is already felt and we are at the beginning only of this transformation114. It is profoundly significant that at the very time when American democracy is becoming conscious that its pioneer basis of free land and sparse115 population is giving way, it is also brought face to face with the startling outcome of its old ideals of individualism and exploitation under competition uncontrolled by government. Pioneer society itself was not sufficiently116 sophisticated to work out to its logical result the conception of the self-made man. But the captains of industry by applying squatter doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the process so clear that he who runs may read. Contests imply alliances as well as rivalries117. The increasing magnitude of the areas to be dealt with and the occurrences of times of industrial stress furnished occasion for such unions. The panic of 1873 was followed by an unprecedented118 combination of individual businesses and partnerships119 into corporations. The panic of 1893 marked the beginning of an extraordinary development of corporate120 combinations into pools and trusts, agreements and [280]absorptions, until, by the time of the panic of 1907, it seemed not impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied121 and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in the industrial life of the nation. The development of large scale factory production, the benefit of combination in the competitive struggle, and the tremendous advantage of concentration in securing possession of the unoccupied opportunities, were so great that vast accumulations of capital became the normal agency of the industrial world. In almost exact ratio to the diminution122 of the supply of unpossessed resources, combinations of capital have increased in magnitude and in efficiency of conquest. The solitary123 backwoodsman wielding124 his ax at the edge of a measureless forest is replaced by companies capitalized at millions, operating railroads, sawmills, and all the enginery of modern machinery to harvest the remaining trees.[280:1]
A new national development is before us without the former safety valve of abundant resources open to him who would take. Classes are becoming alarmingly distinct: There is the demand on the one side voiced by Mr. Harriman so well and by others since, that nothing must be done to interfere60 with the early pioneer ideals of the exploitation and the development of the country's wealth; that restrictive and reforming legislation must on no account threaten prosperity even for a moment. In fact, we sometimes hear in these days, from men of influence, serious doubts of democracy, and intimations that the country would be better off if it freely resigned itself to guidance by the geniuses who are mastering the economic forces of the nation, and who, it is alleged125, would work [281]out the prosperity of the United States more effectively, if unvexed by politicians and people.
On the other hand, an inharmonious group of reformers are sounding the warning that American democratic ideals and society are menaced and already invaded by the very conditions that make this apparent prosperity; that the economic resources are no longer limitless and free; that the aggregate national wealth is increasing at the cost of present social justice and moral health, and the future well-being126 of the American people. The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr. Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of the common man; the checking of the power of those business Titans who emerged successful out of the competitive individualism of pioneer America. As land values rise, as meat and bread grow dearer, as the process of industrial consolidation127 goes on, and as Eastern industrial conditions spread across the West, the problems of traditional American democracy will become increasingly grave.
The time has come when University men may well consider pioneer ideals, for American society has reached the end of the first great period in its formation. It must survey itself, reflect upon its origins, consider what freightage of purposes it carried in its long march across the continent, what ambitions it had for the man, what r?le it would play in the world. How shall we conserve128 what was best in pioneer ideals? How adjust the old conceptions to the changed conditions of modern life?
Other nations have been rich and prosperous and powerful. But the United States has believed that it had an original contribution to make to the history of society by the production [282]of a self-determining, self-restrained, intelligent democracy. It is in the Middle West that society has formed on lines least like those of Europe. It is here, if anywhere, that American democracy will make its stand against the tendency to adjust to a European type.
This consideration gives importance to my final topic, the relation of the University to pioneer ideals and to the changing conditions of American democracy. President Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation has recently declared that in no other form of popular activity does a nation or State so clearly reveal its ideals or the quality of its civilization as in its system of education; and he finds, especially in the State University, "a conception of education from the standpoint of the whole people." "If our American democracy were to-day called to give proof of its constructive129 ability," he says, "the State University and the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence of its fitness which it could offer."
It may at least be conceded that an essential characteristic of the State University is its democracy in the largest sense. The provision in the Constitution of Indiana of 1816, so familiar to you all, for a "general system of education ascending in regular gradations from township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis130 and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by Jeffersonian democracy.
The most obvious fact about these universities, perhaps, lies in their integral relation with the public schools, whereby the pupil has pressed upon him the question whether he shall go to college, and whereby the road is made open and direct to the highest training. By this means the State offers to every class the means of education, and even engages in propaganda [283]to induce students to continue. It sinks deep shafts131 through the social strata132 to find the gold of real ability in the underlying133 rock of the masses. It fosters that due degree of individualism which is implied in the right of every human being to have opportunity to rise in whatever directions his peculiar67 abilities entitle him to go, subordinate to the welfare of the state. It keeps the avenues of promotion134 to the highest offices, the highest honors, open to the humblest and most obscure lad who has the natural gifts, at the same time that it aids in the improvement of the masses.
Nothing in our educational history is more striking than the steady pressure of democracy upon its universities to adapt them to the requirements of all the people. From the State Universities of the Middle West, shaped under pioneer ideals, have come the fuller recognition of scientific studies, and especially those of applied135 science devoted136 to the conquest of nature; the breaking down of the traditional required curriculum; the union of vocational and college work in the same institution; the development of agricultural and engineering colleges and business courses; the training of lawyers, administrators137, public men, and journalists—all under the ideal of service to democracy rather than of individual advancement alone. Other universities do the same thing; but the head springs and the main current of this great stream of tendency come from the land of the pioneers, the democratic states of the Middle West. And the people themselves, through their boards of trustees and the legislature, are in the last resort the court of appeal as to the directions and conditions of growth, as well as have the fountain of income from which these universities derive138 their existence.
The State University has thus both a peculiar power in the directness of its influence upon the whole people and a peculiar limitation in its dependence73 upon the people. The [284]ideals of the people constitute the atmosphere in which it moves, though it can itself affect this atmosphere. Herein is the source of its strength and the direction of its difficulties. For to fulfil its mission of uplifting the state to continuously higher levels the University must, in the words of Mr. Bryce, "serve the time without yielding to it;" it must recognize new needs without becoming subordinate to the immediately practical, to the short-sightedly expedient139. It must not sacrifice the higher efficiency for the more obvious but lower efficiency. It must have the wisdom to make expenditures140 for results which pay manifold in the enrichment of civilization, but which are not immediate and palpable.
In the transitional condition of American democracy which I have tried to indicate, the mission of the university is most important. The times call for educated leaders. General experience and rule-of-thumb information are inadequate141 for the solution of the problems of a democracy which no longer owns the safety fund of an unlimited142 quantity of untouched resources. Scientific farming must increase the yield of the field, scientific forestry143 must economize144 the woodlands, scientific experiment and construction by chemist, physicist145, biologist and engineer must be applied to all of nature's forces in our complex modern society. The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and rifle in this new ideal of conquest. The very discoveries of science in such fields as public health and manufacturing processes have made it necessary to depend upon the expert, and if the ranks of experts are to be recruited broadly from the democratic masses as well as from those of larger means, the State Universities must furnish at least as liberal opportunities for research and training as the universities based on private endowments furnish. It needs no argument to show that it is not to the [285]advantage of democracy to give over the training of the expert exclusively to privately146 endowed institutions.
But quite as much in the field of legislation and of public life in general as in the industrial world is the expert needed. The industrial conditions which shape society are too complex, problems of labor, finance, social reform too difficult to be dealt with intelligently and wisely without the leadership of highly educated men familiar with the legislation and literature on social questions in other States and nations.
By training in science, in law, politics, economics and history the universities may supply from the ranks of democracy administrators, legislators, judges and experts for commissions who shall disinterestedly147 and intelligently mediate15 between contending interests. When the words "capitalistic classes" and "the proletariate" can be used and understood in America it is surely time to develop such men, with the ideal of service to the State, who may help to break the force of these collisions, to find common grounds between the contestants148 and to possess the respect and confidence of all parties which are genuinely loyal to the best American ideals.
The signs of such a development are already plain in the expert commissions of some States; in the increasing proportion of university men in legislatures; in the university men's influence in federal departments and commissions. It is hardly too much to say that the best hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of American universities. By sending out these open-minded experts, by furnishing well-fitted legislators, public leaders and teachers, by graduating successive armies of enlightened citizens accustomed to deal dispassionately with the problems of modern life, able to [286]think for themselves, governed not by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness, the State Universities will safeguard democracy. Without such leaders and followers149 democratic reactions may create revolutions, but they will not be able to produce industrial and social progress. America's problem is not violently to introduce democratic ideals, but to preserve and entrench150 them by courageous151 adaptation to new conditions. Educated leadership sets bulwarks against both the passionate impulses of the mob and the sinister152 designs of those who would subordinate public welfare to private greed. Lord Bacon's splendid utterance153 still rings true: "The learning of the few is despotism; the learning of the many is liberty. And intelligent and principled liberty is fame, wisdom and power."
There is a danger to the universities in this very opportunity. At first pioneer democracy had scant154 respect for the expert. He believed that "a fool can put on his coat better than a wise man can do it for him." There is much truth in the belief; and the educated leader, even he who has been trained under present university conditions, in direct contact with the world about him, will still have to contend with this inherited suspicion of the expert. But if he be well trained and worthy155 of his training, if he be endowed with creative imagination and personality, he will make good his leadership.
A more serious danger will come when the universities are fully156 recognized as powerful factors in shaping the life of the State—not mere cloisters157, remote from its life, but an influential158 element in its life. Then it may easily happen that the smoke of the battle-field of political and social controversy159 will obscure their pure air, that efforts will be made to stamp out the exceptional doctrine and the exceptional man. Those who investigate and teach within the university walls must respond to the injunction of the church, "Sursum corda"—lift [287]up the heart to high thinking and impartial160 search for the unsullied truth in the interests of all the people; this is the holy grail of the universities.
That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation161, they seek new horizons. They are not tied to past knowledge; they recognize the fact that the universe still abounds162 in mystery, that science and society have not crystallized, but are still growing and need their pioneer trail-makers. New and beneficent discoveries in nature, new and beneficial discoveries in the processes and directions of the growth of society, substitutes for the vanishing material basis of pioneer democracy may be expected if the university pioneers are left free to seek the trail.
In conclusion, the university has a duty in adjusting pioneer ideals to the new requirements of American democracy, even more important than those which I have named. The early pioneer was an individualist and a seeker after the undiscovered; but he did not understand the richness and complexity163 of life as a whole; he did not fully realize his opportunities of individualism and discovery. He stood in his somber164 forest as the traveler sometimes stands in a village on the Alps when the mist has shrouded165 everything, and only the squalid hut, the stony166 field, the muddy pathway are in view. But suddenly a wind sweeps the fog away. Vast fields of radiant snow and sparkling ice lie before him; profound abysses open at his feet; and as he lifts his eyes the unimaginable peak of the Matterhorn cleaves167 the thin air, far, far above. A new and unsuspected world is revealed all about him. Thus it is the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery and the glory of life as a whole—to open all the realms of rational human enjoyment168 and achievement; to [288]preserve the consciousness of the past; to spread before the eye the beauty of the universe; and to throw wide its portals of duty and of power to the human soul. It must honor the poet and painter, the writer and the teacher, the scientist and the inventor, the musician and the prophet of righteousness—the men of genius in all fields who make life nobler. It must call forth anew, and for finer uses, the pioneer's love of creative individualism and provide for it a spiritual atmosphere friendly to the development of personality in all uplifting ways. It must check the tendency to act in mediocre169 social masses with undue170 emphasis upon the ideals of prosperity and politics. In short, it must summon ability of all kinds to joyous171 and earnest effort for the welfare and the spiritual enrichment of society. It must awaken172 new tastes and ambitions among the people.
The light of these university watch towers should flash from State to State until American democracy itself is illuminated173 with higher and broader ideals of what constitutes service to the State and to mankind; of what are prizes; of what is worthy of praise and reward. So long as success in amassing174 great wealth for the aggrandizement175 of the individual is the exclusive or the dominant standard of success, so long as material prosperity, regardless of the conditions of its cost, or the civilization which results, is the shibboleth176, American democracy, that faith in the common man which the pioneer cherishes, is in danger. For the strongest will make their way unerringly to whatever goal society sets up as the mark of conceded pre?minence. What more effective agency is there for the cultivation177 of the seed wheat of ideals than the university? Where can we find a more promising178 body of sowers of the grain?
The pioneer's clearing must be broadened into a domain where all that is worthy of human endeavor may find fertile [289]soil on which to grow; and America must exact of the constructive business geniuses who owe their rise to the freedom of pioneer democracy supreme179 allegiance and devotion to the commonweal. In fostering such an outcome and in tempering the asperities180 of the conflicts that must precede its fulfilment, the nation has no more promising agency than the State Universities, no more hopeful product than their graduates.
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aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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wilderness
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| n.杳无人烟的一片陆地、水等，荒漠 | |
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abiding
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| adj.永久的，持久的，不变的 | |
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mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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lore
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| n.传说；学问，经验，知识 | |
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epic
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| n.史诗，叙事诗；adj.史诗般的，壮丽的 | |
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desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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arid
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| adj.干旱的；(土地)贫瘠的 | |
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savages
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| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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12
subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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13
wasteful
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| adj.（造成）浪费的，挥霍的 | |
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14
immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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mediate
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| vi.调解，斡旋；vt.经调解解决；经斡旋促成 | |
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16
wilful
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| adj.任性的，故意的 | |
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17
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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18
portrays
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| v.画像( portray的第三人称单数 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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19
gull
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| n.鸥；受骗的人；v.欺诈 | |
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20
fulfill
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| vt.履行，实现，完成；满足，使满意 | |
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21
gale
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| n.大风，强风，一阵闹声（尤指笑声等） | |
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22
lust
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| n.性(淫)欲；渴(欲)望；vi.对…有强烈的欲望 | |
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23
wring
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| n.扭绞；v.拧，绞出，扭 | |
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24
nude
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| adj.裸体的；n.裸体者，裸体艺术品 | |
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25
vex
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| vt.使烦恼，使苦恼 | |
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26
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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27
sullen
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| adj.愠怒的，闷闷不乐的，(天气等)阴沉的 | |
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28
hatchet
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| n.短柄小斧；v.扼杀 | |
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29
bulwarks
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| n.堡垒( bulwark的名词复数 )；保障；支柱；舷墙 | |
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30
yearning
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| a.渴望的；向往的；怀念的 | |
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31
scythe
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| n. 长柄的大镰刀，战车镰； v. 以大镰刀割 | |
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32
reaper
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| n.收割者，收割机 | |
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33
constraint
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| n.(on)约束，限制；限制(或约束)性的事物 | |
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34
tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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35
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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36
advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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37
squatter
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| n.擅自占地者 | |
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38
hesitation
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| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
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39
restriction
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| n.限制，约束 | |
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40
illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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41
domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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42
enactments
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| n.演出( enactment的名词复数 )；展现；规定；通过 | |
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43
statute
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| n.成文法，法令，法规；章程，规则，条例 | |
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44
expunged
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| v.擦掉( expunge的过去式和过去分词 )；除去；删去；消除 | |
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45
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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46
penetrate
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| v.透(渗)入；刺入，刺穿；洞察，了解 | |
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47
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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48
recesses
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| n.壁凹( recess的名词复数 )；（工作或业务活动的）中止或暂停期间；学校的课间休息；某物内部的凹形空间v.把某物放在墙壁的凹处( recess的第三人称单数 )；将（墙）做成凹形，在（墙）上做壁龛；休息，休会，休庭 | |
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49
perils
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| 极大危险( peril的名词复数 )； 危险的事（或环境） | |
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50
toiled
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| 长时间或辛苦地工作( toil的过去式和过去分词 )； 艰难缓慢地移动，跋涉 | |
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51
labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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52
aggregate
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| adj.总计的，集合的；n.总数；v.合计；集合 | |
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53
trespassing
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| [法]非法入侵 | |
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54
paternal
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| adj.父亲的，像父亲的，父系的，父方的 | |
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55
harassed
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| adj. 疲倦的，厌烦的 动词harass的过去式和过去分词 | |
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56
proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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57
outrages
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| 引起…的义愤，激怒( outrage的第三人称单数 ) | |
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58
Congressman
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| n.（美）国会议员 | |
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59
undesirable
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| adj.不受欢迎的，不良的，不合意的，讨厌的；n.不受欢迎的人，不良分子 | |
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60
interfere
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| v.(in)干涉，干预；(with)妨碍，打扰 | |
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61
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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62
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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63
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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64
passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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65
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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66
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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67
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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68
exhaustion
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| n.耗尽枯竭，疲惫，筋疲力尽，竭尽，详尽无遗的论述 | |
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69
arable
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| adj.可耕的，适合种植的 | |
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70
democrat
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| n.民主主义者，民主人士；民主党党员 | |
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71
apprenticeship
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| n.学徒身份；学徒期 | |
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72
impetus
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| n.推动，促进，刺激；推动力 | |
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73
dependence
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| n.依靠，依赖；信任，信赖；隶属 | |
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74
overthrow
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| v.推翻，打倒，颠覆；n.推翻，瓦解，颠覆 | |
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75
franchise
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| n.特许，特权，专营权，特许权 | |
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76
dominant
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| adj.支配的，统治的；占优势的；显性的；n.主因，要素，主要的人(或物)；显性基因 | |
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77
devout
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| adj.虔诚的，虔敬的，衷心的 (n.devoutness) | |
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78
apprehension
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| n.理解，领悟；逮捕，拘捕；忧虑 | |
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79
ascending
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| adj.上升的，向上的 | |
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80
feverish
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| adj.发烧的，狂热的，兴奋的 | |
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81
boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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82
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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83
exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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84
speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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85
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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86
postpone
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| v.延期，推迟 | |
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87
dwarfed
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| vt.（使）显得矮小（dwarf的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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88
vigor
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| n.活力，精力，元气 | |
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89
colonists
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| n.殖民地开拓者，移民，殖民地居民( colonist的名词复数 ) | |
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90
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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91
colonization
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| 殖民地的开拓，殖民，殖民地化； 移殖 | |
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92
earnings
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| n.工资收人；利润，利益，所得 | |
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93
justify
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| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
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94
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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95
perpetuation
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| n.永存，不朽 | |
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96
radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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97
reconstruction
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| n.重建，再现，复原 | |
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98
lodged
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| v.存放( lodge的过去式和过去分词 )；暂住；埋入；（权利、权威等）归属 | |
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99
antagonisms
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| 对抗，敌对( antagonism的名词复数 ) | |
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100
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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101
fructify
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| v.结果实；使土地肥沃 | |
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102
lavish
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| adj.无节制的；浪费的；vt.慷慨地给予，挥霍 | |
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103
frantic
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| adj.狂乱的，错乱的，激昂的 | |
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104
bugle
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| n.军号，号角，喇叭；v.吹号，吹号召集 | |
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105
lotteries
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| n.抽彩给奖法( lottery的名词复数 )；碰运气的事；彩票；彩券 | |
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106
reclamation
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| n.开垦；改造；（废料等的）回收 | |
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107
costly
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| adj.昂贵的，价值高的，豪华的 | |
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108
quarries
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| n.（采）石场( quarry的名词复数 )；猎物（指鸟，兽等）；方形石；（格窗等的）方形玻璃v.从采石场采得( quarry的第三人称单数 )；从（书本等中）努力发掘（资料等）；在采石场采石 | |
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109
analyzes
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| v.分析( analyze的第三人称单数 )；分解；解释；对…进行心理分析 | |
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110
rental
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| n.租赁，出租，出租业 | |
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111
utilization
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| n.利用，效用 | |
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112
replenish
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| vt.补充；(把…)装满；(再)填满 | |
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113
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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114
transformation
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| n.变化；改造；转变 | |
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115
sparse
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| adj.稀疏的，稀稀落落的，薄的 | |
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116
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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117
rivalries
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| n.敌对，竞争，对抗( rivalry的名词复数 ) | |
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118
unprecedented
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| adj.无前例的，新奇的 | |
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119
partnerships
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| n.伙伴关系( partnership的名词复数 )；合伙人身份；合作关系 | |
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120
corporate
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| adj.共同的，全体的；公司的，企业的 | |
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121
allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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122
diminution
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| n.减少；变小 | |
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123
solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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124
wielding
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的现在分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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125
alleged
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| a.被指控的，嫌疑的 | |
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126
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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127
consolidation
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| n.合并,巩固 | |
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128
conserve
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| vt.保存，保护，节约，节省，守恒，不灭 | |
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129
constructive
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| adj.建设的，建设性的 | |
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130
gratis
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| adj.免费的 | |
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131
shafts
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| n.轴( shaft的名词复数 )；（箭、高尔夫球棒等的）杆；通风井；一阵（疼痛、害怕等） | |
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132
strata
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| n.地层（复数）；社会阶层 | |
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133
underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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134
promotion
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| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
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135
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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136
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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137
administrators
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| n.管理者( administrator的名词复数 )；有管理（或行政）才能的人；（由遗嘱检验法庭指定的）遗产管理人；奉派暂管主教教区的牧师 | |
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138
derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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139
expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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140
expenditures
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| n.花费( expenditure的名词复数 )；使用；（尤指金钱的）支出额；（精力、时间、材料等的）耗费 | |
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141
inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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142
unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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143
forestry
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| n.森林学；林业 | |
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144
economize
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| v.节约，节省 | |
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145
physicist
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| n.物理学家，研究物理学的人 | |
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146
privately
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| adv.以私人的身份，悄悄地，私下地 | |
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147
disinterestedly
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148
contestants
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| n.竞争者，参赛者( contestant的名词复数 ) | |
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149
followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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150
entrench
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| v.使根深蒂固；n.壕沟；防御设施 | |
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151
courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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152
sinister
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| adj.不吉利的，凶恶的，左边的 | |
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153
utterance
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| n.用言语表达，话语，言语 | |
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154
scant
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| adj.不充分的，不足的；v.减缩，限制，忽略 | |
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155
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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156
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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157
cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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158
influential
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| adj.有影响的，有权势的 | |
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159
controversy
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| n.争论，辩论，争吵 | |
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160
impartial
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| adj.(in,to)公正的，无偏见的 | |
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161
investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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162
abounds
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| v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的第三人称单数 ) | |
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163
complexity
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| n.复杂(性)，复杂的事物 | |
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164
somber
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| adj.昏暗的，阴天的，阴森的，忧郁的 | |
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165
shrouded
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| v.隐瞒( shroud的过去式和过去分词 )；保密 | |
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166
stony
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| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
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167
cleaves
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| v.劈开，剁开，割开( cleave的第三人称单数 ) | |
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168
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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169
mediocre
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| adj.平常的，普通的 | |
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170
undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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171
joyous
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| adj.充满快乐的；令人高兴的 | |
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172
awaken
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| vi.醒，觉醒；vt.唤醒，使觉醒，唤起，激起 | |
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173
illuminated
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| adj.被照明的；受启迪的 | |
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174
amassing
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| v.积累，积聚( amass的现在分词 ) | |
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175
aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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176
shibboleth
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| n.陈规陋习；口令；暗语 | |
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177
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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178
promising
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| adj.有希望的，有前途的 | |
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179
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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180
asperities
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| n.粗暴( asperity的名词复数 )；（表面的）粗糙；（环境的）艰苦；严寒的天气 | |
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