Four senses of thought, from the wider to the limited
No words are oftener on our lips than thinking and thought. So profuse2 and varied, indeed, is our use of these words that it is not easy to define just what we mean by them. The aim of this chapter is to find a single consistent meaning. Assistance may be had by considering some typical ways in which the terms are employed. In the first place thought is used broadly, not to say loosely. Everything that comes to mind, that "goes through our heads," is called a thought. To think of a thing is just to be conscious of it in any way whatsoever3. Second, the term is restricted by excluding whatever is directly presented; we think (or think of) only such things as we do not directly see, hear, smell, or taste. Then, third, the meaning is further limited to beliefs that rest upon some kind of evidence or testimony4. Of this third type, two kinds—or, rather, two degrees—must be discriminated5. In some cases, a belief is accepted with slight or almost no attempt to state the grounds that support it. In other cases, the ground or basis for a belief is deliberately6 sought and its[Pg 2] adequacy to support the belief examined. This process is called reflective thought; it alone is truly educative in value, and it forms, accordingly, the principal subject of this volume. We shall now briefly7 describe each of the four senses.
Chance and idle thinking
I. In its loosest sense, thinking signifies everything that, as we say, is "in our heads" or that "goes through our minds." He who offers "a penny for your thoughts" does not expect to drive any great bargain. In calling the objects of his demand thoughts, he does not intend to ascribe to them dignity, consecutiveness8, or truth. Any idle fancy, trivial recollection, or flitting impression will satisfy his demand. Daydreaming10, building of castles in the air, that loose flux11 of casual and disconnected material that floats through our minds in relaxed moments are, in this random12 sense, thinking. More of our waking life than we should care to admit, even to ourselves, is likely to be whiled away in this inconsequential trifling13 with idle fancy and unsubstantial hope.
Reflective thought is consecutive9, not merely a sequence
In this sense, silly folk and dullards think. The story is told of a man in slight repute for intelligence, who, desiring to be chosen selectman in his New England town, addressed a knot of neighbors in this wise: "I hear you don't believe I know enough to hold office. I wish you to understand that I am thinking about something or other most of the time." Now reflective thought is like this random coursing of things through the mind in that it consists of a succession of things thought of; but it is unlike, in that the mere14 chance occurrence of any chance "something or other" in an irregular sequence does not suffice. Reflection involves not simply a sequence of ideas, but a consequence—a consecutive ordering in such a way that[Pg 3] each determines the next as its proper outcome, while each in turn leans back on its predecessors15. The successive portions of the reflective thought grow out of one another and support one another; they do not come and go in a medley16. Each phase is a step from something to something—technically speaking, it is a term of thought. Each term leaves a deposit which is utilized17 in the next term. The stream or flow becomes a train, chain, or thread.
The restriction18 of thinking to what goes beyond direct observationReflective thought aims, however, at belief
II. Even when thinking is used in a broad sense, it is usually restricted to matters not directly perceived: to what we do not see, smell, hear, or touch. We ask the man telling a story if he saw a certain incident happen, and his reply may be, "No, I only thought of it." A note of invention, as distinct from faithful record of observation, is present. Most important in this class are successions of imaginative incidents and episodes which, having a certain coherence19, hanging together on a continuous thread, lie between kaleidoscopic20 flights of fancy and considerations deliberately employed to establish a conclusion. The imaginative stories poured forth21 by children possess all degrees of internal congruity22; some are disjointed, some are articulated. When connected, they simulate reflective thought; indeed, they usually occur in minds of logical capacity. These imaginative enterprises often precede thinking of the close-knit type and prepare the way for it. But they do not aim at knowledge, at belief about facts or in truths; and thereby24 they are marked off from reflective thought even when they most resemble it. Those who express such thoughts do not expect credence25, but rather credit for a well-constructed plot or a well-arranged climax26. They produce good stories, not—unless by chance[Pg 4]—knowledge. Such thoughts are an efflorescence of feeling; the enhancement of a mood or sentiment is their aim; congruity of emotion, their binding27 tie.
Thought induces belief in two ways
III. In its next sense, thought denotes belief resting upon some basis, that is, real or supposed knowledge going beyond what is directly present. It is marked by acceptance or rejection28 of something as reasonably probable or improbable. This phase of thought, however, includes two such distinct types of belief that, even though their difference is strictly29 one of degree, not of kind, it becomes practically important to consider them separately. Some beliefs are accepted when their grounds have not themselves been considered, others are accepted because their grounds have been examined.
When we say, "Men used to think the world was flat," or, "I thought you went by the house," we express belief: something is accepted, held to, acquiesced30 in, or affirmed. But such thoughts may mean a supposition accepted without reference to its real grounds. These may be adequate, they may not; but their value with reference to the support they afford the belief has not been considered.
Such thoughts grow up unconsciously and without reference to the attainment31 of correct belief. They are picked up—we know not how. From obscure sources and by unnoticed channels they insinuate32 themselves into acceptance and become unconsciously a part of our mental furniture. Tradition, instruction, imitation—all of which depend upon authority in some form, or appeal to our own advantage, or fall in with a strong passion—are responsible for them. Such thoughts are prejudices, that is, prejudgments, not[Pg 5] judgments34 proper that rest upon a survey of evidence.[1]
Thinking in its best sense is that which considers the basis and consequences of beliefs
IV. Thoughts that result in belief have an importance attached to them which leads to reflective thought, to conscious inquiry35 into the nature, conditions, and bearings of the belief. To think of whales and camels in the clouds is to entertain ourselves with fancies, terminable at our pleasure, which do not lead to any belief in particular. But to think of the world as flat is to ascribe a quality to a real thing as its real property. This conclusion denotes a connection among things and hence is not, like imaginative thought, plastic to our mood. Belief in the world's flatness commits him who holds it to thinking in certain specific ways of other objects, such as the heavenly bodies, antipodes, the possibility of navigation. It prescribes to him actions in accordance with his conception of these objects.
The consequences of a belief upon other beliefs and upon behavior may be so important, then, that men are forced to consider the grounds or reasons of their belief and its logical consequences. This means reflective thought—thought in its eulogistic36 and emphatic37 sense.
Reflective thought defined
Men thought the world was flat until Columbus thought it to be round. The earlier thought was a belief held because men had not the energy or the courage to question what those about them accepted and taught, especially as it was suggested and seemingly confirmed by obvious sensible facts. The thought of Columbus was a reasoned conclusion. It marked the close of study into facts, of scrutiny38 and revision of evidence, of working out the implications of various hypotheses, and of[Pg 6] comparing these theoretical results with one another and with known facts. Because Columbus did not accept unhesitatingly the current traditional theory, because he doubted and inquired, he arrived at his thought. Skeptical39 of what, from long habit, seemed most certain, and credulous40 of what seemed impossible, he went on thinking until he could produce evidence for both his confidence and his disbelief. Even if his conclusion had finally turned out wrong, it would have been a different sort of belief from those it antagonized, because it was reached by a different method. Active, persistent41, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends, constitutes reflective thought. Any one of the first three kinds of thought may elicit42 this type; but once begun, it is a conscious and voluntary effort to establish belief upon a firm basis of reasons.
§ 2. The Central Factor in Thinking
There is a common element in all types of thought:
There are, however, no sharp lines of demarcation between the various operations just outlined. The problem of attaining43 correct habits of reflection would be much easier than it is, did not the different modes of thinking blend insensibly into one another. So far, we have considered rather extreme instances of each kind in order to get the field clearly before us. Let us now reverse this operation; let us consider a rudimentary case of thinking, lying between careful examination of evidence and a mere irresponsible stream of fancies. A man is walking on a warm day. The sky was clear the last time he observed it; but presently he notes, while occupied primarily with other things, that the air is cooler. It occurs to him that it is probably going to[Pg 7] rain; looking up, he sees a dark cloud between him and the sun, and he then quickens his steps. What, if anything, in such a situation can be called thought? Neither the act of walking nor the noting of the cold is a thought. Walking is one direction of activity; looking and noting are other modes of activity. The likelihood that it will rain is, however, something suggested. The pedestrian feels the cold; he thinks of clouds and a coming shower.
viz. suggestion of something not observedBut reflection involves also the relation of signifying
So far there is the same sort of situation as when one looking at a cloud is reminded of a human figure and face. Thinking in both of these cases (the cases of belief and of fancy) involves a noted44 or perceived fact, followed by something else which is not observed but which is brought to mind, suggested by the thing seen. One reminds us, as we say, of the other. Side by side, however, with this factor of agreement in the two cases of suggestion is a factor of marked disagreement. We do not believe in the face suggested by the cloud; we do not consider at all the probability of its being a fact. There is no reflective thought. The danger of rain, on the contrary, presents itself to us as a genuine possibility—as a possible fact of the same nature as the observed coolness. Put differently, we do not regard the cloud as meaning or indicating a face, but merely as suggesting it, while we do consider that the coolness may mean rain. In the first case, seeing an object, we just happen, as we say, to think of something else; in the second, we consider the possibility and nature of the connection between the object seen and the object suggested. The seen thing is regarded as in some way the ground or basis of belief in the suggested thing; it possesses the quality of evidence.[Pg 8]
Various synonymous expressions for the function of signifying
This function by which one thing signifies or indicates another, and thereby leads us to consider how far one may be regarded as warrant for belief in the other, is, then, the central factor in all reflective or distinctively45 intellectual thinking. By calling up various situations to which such terms as signifies and indicates apply, the student will best realize for himself the actual facts denoted by the words reflective thought. Synonyms46 for these terms are: points to, tells of, betokens47, prognosticates, represents, stands for, implies.[2] We also say one thing portends48 another; is ominous49 of another, or a symptom of it, or a key to it, or (if the connection is quite obscure) that it gives a hint, clue, or intimation.
Reflection and belief on evidence
Reflection thus implies that something is believed in (or disbelieved in), not on its own direct account, but through something else which stands as witness, evidence, proof, voucher50, warrant; that is, as ground of belief. At one time, rain is actually felt or directly experienced; at another time, we infer that it has rained from the looks of the grass and trees, or that it is going to rain because of the condition of the air or the state of the barometer51. At one time, we see a man (or suppose we do) without any intermediary fact; at another time, we are not quite sure what we see, and hunt for accompanying facts that will serve as signs, indications, tokens of what is to be believed.
Thinking, for the purposes of this inquiry, is defined accordingly as that operation in which present facts suggest other facts (or truths) in such a way as to induce be[Pg 9]lief in the latter upon the ground or warrant of the former. We do not put beliefs that rest simply on inference on the surest level of assurance. To say "I think so" implies that I do not as yet know so. The inferential belief may later be confirmed and come to stand as sure, but in itself it always has a certain element of supposition.
§ 3. Elements in Reflective Thinking
So much for the description of the more external and obvious aspects of the fact called thinking. Further consideration at once reveals certain subprocesses which are involved in every reflective operation. These are: (a) a state of perplexity, hesitation52, doubt; and (b) an act of search or investigation53 directed toward bringing to light further facts which serve to corroborate54 or to nullify the suggested belief.
The importance of uncertainty55
(a) In our illustration, the shock of coolness generated confusion and suspended belief, at least momentarily. Because it was unexpected, it was a shock or an interruption needing to be accounted for, identified, or placed. To say that the abrupt56 occurrence of the change of temperature constitutes a problem may sound forced and artificial; but if we are willing to extend the meaning of the word problem to whatever—no matter how slight and commonplace in character—perplexes and challenges the mind so that it makes belief at all uncertain, there is a genuine problem or question involved in this experience of sudden change.
and of inquiry in order to test
(b) The turning of the head, the lifting of the eyes, the scanning of the heavens, are activities adapted to bring to recognition facts that will answer the question presented by the sudden coolness. The facts as they[Pg 10] first presented themselves were perplexing; they suggested, however, clouds. The act of looking was an act to discover if this suggested explanation held good. It may again seem forced to speak of this looking, almost automatic, as an act of research or inquiry. But once more, if we are willing to generalize our conceptions of our mental operations to include the trivial and ordinary as well as the technical and recondite57, there is no good reason for refusing to give such a title to the act of looking. The purport58 of this act of inquiry is to confirm or to refute the suggested belief. New facts are brought to perception, which either corroborate the idea that a change of weather is imminent59, or negate60 it.
Finding one's way an illustration of reflection
Another instance, commonplace also, yet not quite so trivial, may enforce this lesson. A man traveling in an unfamiliar61 region comes to a branching of the roads. Having no sure knowledge to fall back upon, he is brought to a standstill of hesitation and suspense62. Which road is right? And how shall perplexity be resolved? There are but two alternatives: he must either blindly and arbitrarily take his course, trusting to luck for the outcome, or he must discover grounds for the conclusion that a given road is right. Any attempt to decide the matter by thinking will involve inquiry into other facts, whether brought out by memory or by further observation, or by both. The perplexed63 wayfarer64 must carefully scrutinize65 what is before him and he must cudgel his memory. He looks for evidence that will support belief in favor of either of the roads—for evidence that will weight down one suggestion. He may climb a tree; he may go first in this direction, then in that, looking, in either case, for signs, clues,[Pg 11] indications. He wants something in the nature of a signboard or a map, and his reflection is aimed at the discovery of facts that will serve this purpose.
Possible, yet incompatible66, suggestions
The above illustration may be generalized. Thinking begins in what may fairly enough be called a forked-road situation, a situation which is ambiguous, which presents a dilemma67, which proposes alternatives. As long as our activity glides68 smoothly69 along from one thing to another, or as long as we permit our imagination to entertain fancies at pleasure, there is no call for reflection. Difficulty or obstruction70 in the way of reaching a belief brings us, however, to a pause. In the suspense of uncertainty, we metaphorically71 climb a tree; we try to find some standpoint from which we may survey additional facts and, getting a more commanding view of the situation, may decide how the facts stand related to one another.
Regulation of thinking by its purpose
Demand for the solution of a perplexity is the steadying and guiding factor in the entire process of reflection. Where there is no question of a problem to be solved or a difficulty to be surmounted72, the course of suggestions flows on at random; we have the first type of thought described. If the stream of suggestions is controlled simply by their emotional congruity, their fitting agreeably into a single picture or story, we have the second type. But a question to be answered, an ambiguity73 to be resolved, sets up an end and holds the current of ideas to a definite channel. Every suggested conclusion is tested by its reference to this regulating end, by its pertinence74 to the problem in hand. This need of straightening out a perplexity also controls the kind of inquiry undertaken. A traveler whose end is the most beautiful path will look for other considerations and[Pg 12] will test suggestions occurring to him on another principle than if he wishes to discover the way to a given city. The problem fixes the end of thought and the end controls the process of thinking.
§ 4. Summary
We may recapitulate76 by saying that the origin of thinking is some perplexity, confusion, or doubt. Thinking is not a case of spontaneous combustion77; it does not occur just on "general principles." There is something specific which occasions and evokes78 it. General appeals to a child (or to a grown-up) to think, irrespective of the existence in his own experience of some difficulty that troubles him and disturbs his equilibrium79, are as futile80 as advice to lift himself by his boot-straps.
Suggestions and past experience
Given a difficulty, the next step is suggestion of some way out—the formation of some tentative plan or project, the entertaining of some theory which will account for the peculiarities81 in question, the consideration of some solution for the problem. The data at hand cannot supply the solution; they can only suggest it. What, then, are the sources of the suggestion? Clearly past experience and prior knowledge. If the person has had some acquaintance with similar situations, if he has dealt with material of the same sort before, suggestions more or less apt and helpful are likely to arise. But unless there has been experience in some degree analogous82, which may now be represented in imagination, confusion remains83 mere confusion. There is nothing upon which to draw in order to clarify it. Even when a child (or a grown-up) has a problem, to urge him to think when he has no prior experiences involving some of the same conditions, is wholly futile.[Pg 13]
Exploration and testing
If the suggestion that occurs is at once accepted, we have uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection. To turn the thing over in mind, to reflect, means to hunt for additional evidence, for new data, that will develop the suggestion, and will either, as we say, bear it out or else make obvious its absurdity84 and irrelevance85. Given a genuine difficulty and a reasonable amount of analogous experience to draw upon, the difference, par23 excellence86, between good and bad thinking is found at this point. The easiest way is to accept any suggestion that seems plausible87 and thereby bring to an end the condition of mental uneasiness. Reflective thinking is always more or less troublesome because it involves overcoming the inertia88 that inclines one to accept suggestions at their face value; it involves willingness to endure a condition of mental unrest and disturbance89. Reflective thinking, in short, means judgment33 suspended during further inquiry; and suspense is likely to be somewhat painful. As we shall see later, the most important factor in the training of good mental habits consists in acquiring the attitude of suspended conclusion, and in mastering the various methods of searching for new materials to corroborate or to refute the first suggestions that occur. To maintain the state of doubt and to carry on systematic90 and protracted91 inquiry—these are the essentials of thinking.
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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profuse
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| adj.很多的，大量的，极其丰富的 | |
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whatsoever
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| adv.（用于否定句中以加强语气）任何；pron.无论什么 | |
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testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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discriminated
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| 分别，辨别，区分( discriminate的过去式和过去分词 )； 歧视，有差别地对待 | |
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deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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consecutiveness
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| Consecutiveness | |
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consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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daydreaming
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| v.想入非非，空想( daydream的现在分词 ) | |
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flux
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| n.流动；不断的改变 | |
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random
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| adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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medley
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| n.混合 | |
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utilized
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| v.利用，使用( utilize的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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restriction
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| n.限制，约束 | |
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coherence
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| n.紧凑；连贯；一致性 | |
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kaleidoscopic
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| adj.千变万化的 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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congruity
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| n.全等，一致 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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credence
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| n.信用，祭器台，供桌，凭证 | |
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climax
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| n.顶点；高潮；v.(使)达到顶点 | |
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binding
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| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
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rejection
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| n.拒绝，被拒，抛弃，被弃 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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acquiesced
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| v.默认，默许( acquiesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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attainment
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| n.达到，到达；［常pl.］成就，造诣 | |
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insinuate
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| vt.含沙射影地说，暗示 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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judgments
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| 判断( judgment的名词复数 )； 鉴定； 评价； 审判 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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eulogistic
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| adj.颂扬的，颂词的 | |
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emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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skeptical
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| adj.怀疑的，多疑的 | |
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credulous
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| adj.轻信的，易信的 | |
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persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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elicit
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| v.引出,抽出,引起 | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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distinctively
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| adv.特殊地，区别地 | |
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synonyms
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| 同义词( synonym的名词复数 ) | |
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betokens
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| v.预示，表示( betoken的第三人称单数 ) | |
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portends
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| v.预示( portend的第三人称单数 )；预兆；给…以警告；预告 | |
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ominous
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| adj.不祥的，不吉的，预兆的，预示的 | |
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voucher
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| n.收据；传票；凭单，凭证 | |
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barometer
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| n.气压表，睛雨表，反应指标 | |
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hesitation
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| n.犹豫，踌躇 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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corroborate
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| v.支持，证实，确定 | |
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uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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abrupt
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| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
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recondite
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| adj.深奥的，难解的 | |
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purport
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| n.意义，要旨，大要；v.意味著，做为...要旨，要领是... | |
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imminent
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| adj.即将发生的，临近的，逼近的 | |
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negate
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| vt.否定，否认；取消，使无效 | |
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unfamiliar
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| adj.陌生的，不熟悉的 | |
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suspense
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| n.（对可能发生的事）紧张感，担心，挂虑 | |
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perplexed
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| adj.不知所措的 | |
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wayfarer
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| n.旅人 | |
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scrutinize
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| n.详细检查，细读 | |
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incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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dilemma
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| n.困境，进退两难的局面 | |
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glides
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| n.滑行( glide的名词复数 )；滑音；音渡；过渡音v.滑动( glide的第三人称单数 )；掠过；（鸟或飞机 ） 滑翔 | |
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smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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obstruction
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| n.阻塞，堵塞；障碍物 | |
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metaphorically
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| adv. 用比喻地 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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ambiguity
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| n.模棱两可；意义不明确 | |
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pertinence
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| n.中肯 | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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recapitulate
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| v.节述要旨，择要说明 | |
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combustion
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| n.燃烧；氧化；骚动 | |
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evokes
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| 产生，引起，唤起( evoke的第三人称单数 ) | |
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equilibrium
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| n.平衡，均衡，相称，均势，平静 | |
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futile
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| adj.无效的，无用的，无希望的 | |
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peculiarities
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| n. 特质, 特性, 怪癖, 古怪 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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irrelevance
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| n.无关紧要；不相关；不相关的事物 | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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plausible
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| adj.似真实的，似乎有理的，似乎可信的 | |
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inertia
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| adj.惰性，惯性，懒惰，迟钝 | |
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disturbance
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| n.动乱，骚动；打扰，干扰；(身心)失调 | |
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systematic
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| adj.有系统的，有计划的，有方法的 | |
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protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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