§ 1. The Unconscious and the Conscious
The understood as the unconsciously assumed
It is significant that one meaning of the term understood is something so thoroughly3 mastered, so completely agreed upon, as to be assumed; that is to say, taken as a matter of course without explicit5 statement. The familiar "goes without saying" means "it is understood." If two persons can converse6 intelligently with each other, it is because a common experience supplies a background of mutual7 understanding upon which their respective remarks are projected. To dig up and to formulate9 this common background would be imbecile; it is "understood"; that is, it is silently supplied and implied as the taken-for-granted medium of intelligent exchange of ideas.
Inquiry as conscious formulation
If, however, the two persons find themselves at cross-purposes, it is necessary to dig up and compare the presuppositions, the implied context, on the basis of which each is speaking. The implicit11 is made explicit; what was unconsciously assumed is exposed to the light of conscious day. In this way, the root of the misunder[Pg 215]standing8 is removed. Some such rhythm of the unconscious and the conscious is involved in all fruitful thinking. A person in pursuing a consecutive12 train of thoughts takes some system of ideas for granted (which accordingly he leaves unexpressed, "unconscious") as surely as he does in conversing13 with others. Some context, some situation, some controlling purpose dominates his explicit ideas so thoroughly that it does not need to be consciously formulated14 and expounded15. Explicit thinking goes on within the limits of what is implied or understood. Yet the fact that reflection originates in a problem makes it necessary at some points consciously to inspect and examine this familiar background. We have to turn upon some unconscious assumption and make it explicit.
No rules can be laid down for attaining the due balance and rhythm of these two phases of mental life. No ordinance17 can prescribe at just what point the spontaneous working of some unconscious attitude and habit is to be checked till we have made explicit what is implied in it. No one can tell in detail just how far the analytic18 inspection19 and formulation are to be carried. We can say that they must be carried far enough so that the individual will know what he is about and be able to guide his thinking; but in a given case just how far is that? We can say that they must be carried far enough to detect and guard against the source of some false perception or reasoning, and to get a leverage20 on the investigation21; but such statements only restate the original difficulty. Since our reliance must be upon the disposition22 and tact23 of the individual in the particular case, there is no test of the success of an education more important than the extent to which it nurtures24 a type of mind competent to[Pg 216] maintain an economical balance of the unconscious and the conscious.
The over-analytic to be avoided
The ways of teaching criticised in the foregoing pages as false "analytic" methods of instruction (ante, p. 112), all reduce themselves to the mistake of directing explicit attention and formulation to what would work better if left an unconscious attitude and working assumption. To pry26 into the familiar, the usual, the automatic, simply for the sake of making it conscious, simply for the sake of formulating27 it, is both an impertinent interference, and a source of boredom28. To be forced to dwell consciously upon the accustomed is the essence of ennui29; to pursue methods of instruction that have that tendency is deliberately30 to cultivate lack of interest.
On the other hand, what has been said in criticism of merely routine forms of skill, what has been said about the importance of having a genuine problem, of introducing the novel, and of reaching a deposit of general meaning weighs on the other side of the scales. It is as fatal to good thinking to fail to make conscious the standing source of some error or failure as it is to pry needlessly into what works smoothly33. To over-simplify, to exclude the novel for the sake of prompt skill, to avoid obstacles for the sake of averting34 errors, is as detrimental35 as to try to get pupils to formulate everything they know and to state every step of the process employed in getting a result. Where the shoe pinches, analytic examination is indicated. When a topic is to be clinched36 so that knowledge of it will carry over into an effective resource in further topics, conscious condensation37 and summarizing are imperative38. In the early stage of acquaintance with a subject, a good deal of unconstrained unconscious mental play about it may be[Pg 217] permitted, even at the risk of some random39 experimenting; in the later stages, conscious formulation and review may be encouraged. Projection40 and reflection, going directly ahead and turning back in scrutiny41, should alternate. Unconsciousness gives spontaneity and freshness; consciousness, conviction and control.
§ 2. Process and Product
Play and work again
A like balance in mental life characterizes process and product. We met one important phase of this adjustment in considering play and work. In play, interest centers in activity, without much reference to its outcome. The sequence of deeds, images, emotions, suffices on its own account. In work, the end holds attention and controls the notice given to means. Since the difference is one of direction of interest, the contrast is one of emphasis, not of cleavage. When comparative prominence42 in consciousness of activity or outcome is transformed into isolation43 of one from the other, play degenerates44 into fooling, and work into drudgery45.
Play should not be fooling,
By "fooling" we understand a series of disconnected temporary overflows46 of energy dependent upon whim47 and accident. When all reference to outcome is eliminated from the sequence of ideas and acts that make play, each member of the sequence is cut loose from every other and becomes fantastic, arbitrary, aimless; mere32 fooling follows. There is some inveterate48 tendency to fool in children as well as in animals; nor is the tendency wholly evil, for at least it militates against falling into ruts. But when it is excessive in amount, dissipation and disintegration49 follow; and the only way of preventing this consequence is to make regard for results enter into even the freest play activity.[Pg 218]
nor work, drudgery
Exclusive interest in the result alters work to drudgery. For by drudgery is meant those activities in which the interest in the outcome does not suffuse50 the means of getting the result. Whenever a piece of work becomes drudgery, the process of doing loses all value for the doer; he cares solely51 for what is to be had at the end of it. The work itself, the putting forth52 of energy, is hateful; it is just a necessary evil, since without it some important end would be missed. Now it is a commonplace that in the work of the world many things have to be done the doing of which is not intrinsically very interesting. However, the argument that children should be kept doing drudgery-tasks because thereby53 they acquire power to be faithful to distasteful duties, is wholly fallacious. Repulsion, shirking, and evasion54 are the consequences of having the repulsive55 imposed—not loyal love of duty. Willingness to work for ends by means of acts not naturally attractive is best attained56 by securing such an appreciation57 of the value of the end that a sense of its value is transferred to its means of accomplishment58. Not interesting in themselves, they borrow interest from the result with which they are associated.
Balance of playfulness and seriousness the intellectual idealFree play of mindis normal in childhood
The intellectual harm accruing59 from divorce of work and play, product and process, is evidenced in the proverb, "All work and no play makes Jack60 a dull boy." That the obverse is true is perhaps sufficiently61 signalized in the fact that fooling is so near to foolishness. To be playful and serious at the same time is possible, and it defines the ideal mental condition. Absence of dogmatism and prejudice, presence of intellectual curiosity and flexibility62, are manifest in the free play of the mind upon a topic. To give the mind this[Pg 219] free play is not to encourage toying with a subject, but is to be interested in the unfolding of the subject on its own account, apart from its subservience63 to a preconceived belief or habitual64 aim. Mental play is open-mindedness, faith in the power of thought to preserve its own integrity without external supports and arbitrary restrictions65. Hence free mental play involves seriousness, the earnest following of the development of subject-matter. It is incompatible66 with carelessness or flippancy67, for it exacts accurate noting of every result reached in order that every conclusion may be put to further use. What is termed the interest in truth for its own sake is certainly a serious matter, yet this pure interest in truth coincides with love of the free play of thought.
In spite of many appearances to the contrary—usually due to social conditions of either undue68 superfluity that induces idle fooling or undue economic pressure that compels drudgery—childhood normally realizes the ideal of conjoint free mental play and thoughtfulness. Successful portrayals69 of children have always made their wistful intentness at least as obvious as their lack of worry for the morrow. To live in the present is compatible with condensation of far-reaching meanings in the present. Such enrichment of the present for its own sake is the just heritage of childhood and the best insurer of future growth. The child forced into premature70 concern with economic remote results may develop a surprising sharpening of wits in a particular direction, but this precocious71 specialization is always paid for by later apathy72 and dullness.
The attitude of the artist
That art originated in play is a common saying. Whether or not the saying is historically correct, it[Pg 220] suggests that harmony of mental playfulness and seriousness describes the artistic73 ideal. When the artist is preoccupied74 overmuch with means and materials, he may achieve wonderful technique, but not the artistic spirit par10 excellence75. When the animating76 idea is in excess of the command of method, ?sthetic feeling may be indicated, but the art of presentation is too defective77 to express the feeling thoroughly. When the thought of the end becomes so adequate that it compels translation into the means that embody78 it, or when attention to means is inspired by recognition of the end they serve, we have the attitude typical of the artist, an attitude that may be displayed in all activities, even though not conventionally designated arts.
That teaching is an art and the true teacher an artist is a familiar saying. Now the teacher's own claim to rank as an artist is measured by his ability to foster the attitude of the artist in those who study with him, whether they be youth or little children. Some succeed in arousing enthusiasm, in communicating large ideas, in evoking81 energy. So far, well; but the final test is whether the stimulus82 thus given to wider aims succeeds in transforming itself into power, that is to say, into the attention to detail that ensures mastery over means of execution. If not, the zeal83 flags, the interest dies out, the ideal becomes a clouded memory. Other teachers succeed in training facility, skill, mastery of the technique of subjects. Again it is well—so far. But unless enlargement of mental vision, power of increased discrimination of final values, a sense for ideas—for principles—accompanies this training, forms of skill ready to be put indifferently to any end may be the result. Such modes of technical skill may display themselves, accord[Pg 221]ing to circumstances, as cleverness in serving self-interest, as docility84 in carrying out the purposes of others, or as unimaginative plodding85 in ruts. To nurture25 inspiring aim and executive means into harmony with each other is at once the difficulty and the reward of the teacher.
§ 3. The Far and the Near
"Familiarity breeds contempt,"
Teachers who have heard that they should avoid matters foreign to pupils' experience, are frequently surprised to find pupils wake up when something beyond their ken4 is introduced, while they remain apathetic86 in considering the familiar. In geography, the child upon the plains seems perversely87 irresponsive to the intellectual charms of his local environment, and fascinated by whatever concerns mountains or the sea. Teachers who have struggled with little avail to extract from pupils essays describing the details of things with which they are well acquainted, sometimes find them eager to write on lofty or imaginary themes. A woman of education, who has recorded her experience as a factory worker, tried retelling Little Women to some factory girls during their working hours. They cared little for it, saying, "Those girls had no more interesting experience than we have," and demanded stories of millionaires and society leaders. A man interested in the mental condition of those engaged in routine labor88 asked a Scotch89 girl in a cotton factory what she thought about all day. She replied that as soon as her mind was free from starting the machinery90, she married a duke, and their fortunes occupied her for the remainder of the day.
since only the novel demands attention,
Naturally, these incidents are not told in order to encourage methods of teaching that appeal to the sensa[Pg 222]tional, the extraordinary, or the incomprehensible. They are told, however, to enforce the point that the familiar and the near do not excite or repay thought on their own account, but only as they are adjusted to mastering the strange and remote. It is a commonplace of psychology91 that we do not attend to the old, nor consciously mind that to which we are thoroughly accustomed. For this, there is good reason: to devote attention to the old, when new circumstances are constantly arising to which we should adjust ourselves, would be wasteful92 and dangerous. Thought must be reserved for the new, the precarious93, the problematic. Hence the mental constraint94, the sense of being lost, that comes to pupils when they are invited to turn their thoughts upon that with which they are already familiar. The old, the near, the accustomed, is not that to which but that with which we attend; it does not furnish the material of a problem, but of its solution.
which, in turn, can be given only through the old
The last sentence has brought us to the balancing of new and old, of the far and that close by, involved in reflection. The more remote supplies the stimulus and the motive95; the nearer at hand furnishes the point of approach and the available resources. This principle may also be stated in this form: the best thinking occurs when the easy and the difficult are duly proportioned to each other. The easy and the familiar are equivalents, as are the strange and the difficult. Too much that is easy gives no ground for inquiry; too much of the hard renders inquiry hopeless.
The given and the suggested
The necessity of the interaction of the near and the far follows directly from the nature of thinking. Where there is thought, something present suggests and indicates something absent. Accordingly unless the familiar[Pg 223] is presented under conditions that are in some respect unusual, it gives no jog to thinking, it makes no demand upon what is not present in order to be understood. And if the subject presented is totally strange, there is no basis upon which it may suggest anything serviceable for its comprehension. When a person first has to do with fractions, for example, they will be wholly baffling so far as they do not signify to him some relation that he has already mastered in dealing96 with whole numbers. When fractions have become thoroughly familiar, his perception of them acts simply as a signal to do certain things; they are a "substitute sign," to which he can react without thinking. (Ante, p. 178.) If, nevertheless, the situation as a whole presents something novel and hence uncertain, the entire response is not mechanical, because this mechanical operation is put to use in solving a problem. There is no end to this spiral process: foreign subject-matter transformed through thinking into a familiar possession becomes a resource for judging and assimilating additional foreign subject-matter.
Observation supplies the near, imagination the remote
The need for both imagination and observation in every mental enterprise illustrates97 another aspect of the same principle. Teachers who have tried object-lessons of the conventional type have usually found that when the lessons were new, pupils were attracted to them as a diversion, but as soon as they became matters of course they were as dull and wearisome as was ever the most mechanical study of mere symbols. Imagination could not play about the objects so as to enrich them. The feeling that instruction in "facts, facts" produces a narrow Gradgrind is justified98 not because facts in themselves are limiting, but because facts are dealt out[Pg 224] as such hard and fast ready-made articles as to leave no room to imagination. Let the facts be presented so as to stimulate99 imagination, and culture ensues naturally enough. The converse is equally true. The imaginative is not necessarily the imaginary; that is, the unreal. The proper function of imagination is vision of realities that cannot be exhibited under existing conditions of sense-perception. Clear insight into the remote, the absent, the obscure is its aim. History, literature, and geography, the principles of science, nay100, even geometry and arithmetic, are full of matters that must be imaginatively realized if they are realized at all. Imagination supplements and deepens observation; only when it turns into the fanciful does it become a substitute for observation and lose logical force.
Experience through communication of others' experience
A final exemplification of the required balance between near and far is found in the relation that obtains between the narrower field of experience realized in an individual's own contact with persons and things, and the wider experience of the race that may become his through communication. Instruction always runs the risk of swamping the pupil's own vital, though narrow, experience under masses of communicated material. The instructor101 ceases and the teacher begins at the point where communicated matter stimulates102 into fuller and more significant life that which has entered by the strait and narrow gate of sense-perception and motor activity. Genuine communication involves contagion103; its name should not be taken in vain by terming communication that which produces no community of thought and purpose between the child and the race of which he is the heir.
The End
The End
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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ken
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| n.视野，知识领域 | |
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explicit
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| adj.详述的，明确的；坦率的；显然的 | |
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converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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formulate
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| v.用公式表示；规划；设计；系统地阐述 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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implicit
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| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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consecutive
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| adj.连续的，联贯的，始终一贯的 | |
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conversing
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| v.交谈，谈话( converse的现在分词 ) | |
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formulated
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| v.构想出( formulate的过去式和过去分词 )；规划；确切地阐述；用公式表示 | |
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expounded
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| 论述，详细讲解( expound的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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attaining
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的现在分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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ordinance
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| n.法令；条令；条例 | |
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analytic
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| adj.分析的，用分析方法的 | |
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inspection
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| n.检查，审查，检阅 | |
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leverage
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| n.力量，影响；杠杆作用，杠杆的力量 | |
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investigation
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| n.调查，调查研究 | |
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disposition
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| n.性情，性格；意向，倾向；排列，部署 | |
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tact
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| n.机敏，圆滑，得体 | |
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nurtures
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| 教养，培育( nurture的名词复数 ) | |
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nurture
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| n.养育，照顾，教育；滋养，营养品；vt.养育，给与营养物，教养，扶持 | |
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pry
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| vi.窥(刺)探，打听；vt.撬动(开，起) | |
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formulating
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| v.构想出( formulate的现在分词 )；规划；确切地阐述；用公式表示 | |
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boredom
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| n.厌烦，厌倦，乏味，无聊 | |
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ennui
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| n.怠倦，无聊 | |
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deliberately
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| adv.审慎地；蓄意地；故意地 | |
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clinching
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| v.（尤指两人）互相紧紧抱[扭]住( clinch的现在分词 )；解决（争端、交易），达成（协议） | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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averting
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| 防止，避免( avert的现在分词 )； 转移 | |
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detrimental
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| adj.损害的，造成伤害的 | |
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clinched
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| v.（尤指两人）互相紧紧抱[扭]住( clinch的过去式和过去分词 )；解决（争端、交易），达成（协议） | |
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condensation
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| n.压缩，浓缩；凝结的水珠 | |
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imperative
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| n.命令，需要；规则；祈使语气；adj.强制的；紧急的 | |
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random
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| adj.随机的；任意的；n.偶然的(或随便的)行动 | |
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projection
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| n.发射，计划，突出部分 | |
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scrutiny
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| n.详细检查，仔细观察 | |
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prominence
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| n.突出；显著；杰出；重要 | |
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isolation
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| n.隔离，孤立，分解，分离 | |
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degenerates
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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drudgery
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| n.苦工，重活，单调乏味的工作 | |
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overflows
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| v.溢出，淹没( overflow的第三人称单数 )；充满；挤满了人；扩展出界，过度延伸 | |
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whim
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| n.一时的兴致，突然的念头；奇想，幻想 | |
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inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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disintegration
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| n.分散，解体 | |
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suffuse
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| v.(色彩等)弥漫，染遍 | |
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solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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evasion
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| n.逃避，偷漏(税) | |
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repulsive
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| adj.排斥的，使人反感的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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accomplishment
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| n.完成，成就，（pl.）造诣，技能 | |
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accruing
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| v.增加( accrue的现在分词 )；（通过自然增长）产生；获得；（使钱款、债务）积累 | |
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jack
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| n.插座，千斤顶，男人；v.抬起，提醒，扛举；n.（Jake）杰克 | |
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sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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flexibility
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| n.柔韧性，弹性，（光的）折射性，灵活性 | |
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subservience
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| n.有利，有益；从属（地位），附属性；屈从，恭顺；媚态 | |
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habitual
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| adj.习惯性的；通常的，惯常的 | |
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restrictions
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| 约束( restriction的名词复数 )； 管制； 制约因素； 带限制性的条件（或规则） | |
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incompatible
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| adj.不相容的，不协调的，不相配的 | |
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flippancy
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| n.轻率；浮躁；无礼的行动 | |
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undue
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| adj.过分的；不适当的；未到期的 | |
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portrayals
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| n.画像( portrayal的名词复数 )；描述；描写；描摹 | |
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premature
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| adj.比预期时间早的；不成熟的，仓促的 | |
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precocious
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| adj.早熟的；较早显出的 | |
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apathy
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| n.漠不关心，无动于衷；冷淡 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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preoccupied
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| adj.全神贯注的，入神的；被抢先占有的；心事重重的v.占据（某人）思想，使对…全神贯注，使专心于( preoccupy的过去式) | |
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excellence
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| n.优秀，杰出，(pl.)优点，美德 | |
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animating
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| v.使有生气( animate的现在分词 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
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defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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embody
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| vt.具体表达，使具体化；包含，收录 | |
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culminates
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| v.达到极点( culminate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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80
nurturing
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| 养育( nurture的现在分词 )； 培育； 滋长； 助长 | |
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evoking
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| 产生，引起，唤起( evoke的现在分词 ) | |
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stimulus
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| n.刺激，刺激物，促进因素，引起兴奋的事物 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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docility
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| n.容易教，易驾驶，驯服 | |
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plodding
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| a.proceeding in a slow or dull way | |
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apathetic
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| adj.冷漠的，无动于衷的 | |
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perversely
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| adv. 倔强地 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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psychology
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| n.心理，心理学，心理状态 | |
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wasteful
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| adj.（造成）浪费的，挥霍的 | |
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precarious
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| adj.不安定的，靠不住的；根据不足的 | |
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constraint
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| n.(on)约束，限制；限制(或约束)性的事物 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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illustrates
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| 给…加插图( illustrate的第三人称单数 )； 说明； 表明； （用示例、图画等）说明 | |
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justified
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| a.正当的，有理的 | |
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stimulate
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| vt.刺激，使兴奋；激励，使…振奋 | |
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100
nay
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| adv.不；n.反对票，投反对票者 | |
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101
instructor
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| n.指导者，教员，教练 | |
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102
stimulates
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| v.刺激( stimulate的第三人称单数 )；激励；使兴奋；起兴奋作用，起刺激作用，起促进作用 | |
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contagion
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| n.(通过接触的疾病)传染；蔓延 | |
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