500 B. C.—and follow events in chronological1 order, with a fair appreciation2 of their import. Just before the close of the last century, Darius Hystaspes, the king of Persia, sent an army into Europe, to the north of Greece, to chastise3 the Scythians, and it conquered Thrace. The Greek colonies in Asia Minor4, which had been recently added to the Persian empire, became restive5 under foreign control, and when the Persian army returned home, 500—organized a rebellion and took and burned the city of Sardis, the ancient capital of Lydia. They were assisted by the European Greeks; but the vast resources of Persia soon enabled Darius to take vengeance6 on them, and Miletus was besieged7 and destroyed. Darius summoned the Grecian states to offer their submission8, but Athens and Sparta sent back a defiance9. Darius thereupon gathered a large armament and prepared to invade 495—Greece, which he commenced by the conquest of Macedon. But a tempest destroyed his ships and 20,000 men, and the expedition returned to Persia. In the[84] same year the Roman plebeians10 obtained their first success against the patricians11, by which the debts of the poor plebeians to the wealthy patricians were cancelled and Tribunes of the People appointed.
490—This year the glory of Greece broke forth12. Darius having sent another and larger army into Greece, it advanced on Athens and encamped at Marathon, within twenty-two miles of the city. The Persian host was said to number from 100,000 to 200,000 men. The Athenians had but 10,000 citizens, but armed 20,000 slaves, and the city of Plat?a sent them 1,000 troops. Miltiades, the very able Athenian general, marched out and, taking a good position, offered battle. It was the 20th of September. The little army of the Greeks obtained a complete victory and the Persians returned home in confusion. The great services of Miltiades were rewarded with imprisonment13, on a frivolous14 charge, and he died there of his wounds.
485—Darius Hystaspes, the Persian king, died while preparing a still larger armament for the invasion of Greece.
480—Xerxes, king of Persia, invaded Greece with a million soldiers. The battle at the pass of Thermopyl? was fought by a thousand Spartans17 under Leonidas, their king, and all but one slain18. The Persian fleet was beaten the same day by Themistocles, the Athenian admiral. Xerxes soon advanced on Athens, which was abandoned by its inhabitants and burned by the Persians. Soon after, Themistocles fought the Persian navy again at Salamis and totally destroyed it. Xerxes, leaving a large army in Greece, returned to Asia.
479—The battle of Plat?a ended the Persian invasion. The allied19 Greek army numbered 70,000, under Pausanias, the Spartan16 king; the Persians 300,000. The Persians are said to have had 200,000 slain, and their army was[85] totally routed. Another victory was gained on the coast of Asia Minor the same day, and the last remnants of the Persian fleet destroyed.
478—Athens was rebuilt and surrounded with walls from the treasures of the conquered Persians. This was the age of great men in Greece. Phidias, her greatest sculptor20, flourished at this time. The Persians, at the time of their first invasion, brought a piece of marble to commemorate21 the victory of which they were confident. The Greeks caused Phidias to produce out of it a statue of Nemesis22, the goddess of vengeance, and set it up on the field of Marathon.
478—Themistocles died in banishment23 about this time, and Aristides of old age. Both were leading statesmen and generals of Athens during the Persian war.
” —The death of Xerxes by assassination25 occurred this year.
466—Cimon, son of Miltiades, was now the great man of Athens. He was soon superseded26 by Pericles. From 480 B. C. to 430 was the golden period of Athens. She was pre-eminent politically, conducting the war of the Grecian allies against Persian supremacy27 on the western shores of Asia and in the Mediterranean28 sea. Republican liberty was everywhere predominant. The greatest writers, painters and sculptors29 lived in this period or immediately after it. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, philosophers; ?schylus, Sophocles, Euripides, tragic30 poets; Zeuxis and Apelles, painters; and Phidias in sculpture, were a few among the many great names which are found in or immediately following this period.
457—Cincinnatus was made dictator at Rome. During this period the Romans laid the foundation of their dominion31 over all Italy by waging successful war with the Etruscans and Samnites, the most vigorous and powerful of their opponents.
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450—The Decemvirate was appointed at Rome. They were ten magistrates32 empowered to produce a more perfect code. It was called the “Laws of the Twelve Tables.” The plebeians about this time succeeded in wresting33 important privileges from the patricians, which more equally balanced the different powers of the state.
2. Athens was the centre of civilization, and Greek culture and ideas were penetrating34 all the nations in her vicinity. Rome was rapidly developing and Carthage was at the summit of her glory. She had control of much of the Spanish or Iberian peninsula. Persia, after absorbing all the old monarchies35 of the east, was declining. The “march of empire” was distinctly defining its “westward course.”
It was about the middle of this century that Herodotus, the “Father of History,” was rising to fame, and a few years later Xenophon, the Greek general and historian, was born. Thucydides, another historian, dates from this period. The great career of history now fairly commenced.
443—Herodotus emigrated from Halicarnassus, in Asia, to Greece.
431—The Peloponnesian war, a bitter contest between Athens and Sparta, commenced. It lasted twenty-three years, and was again revived, ending in the conquest of Athens by Sparta. This war was followed, after some time, by the rise of the power of Thebes, under their famous general, Epaminondas, who broke the power of Sparta. Thebes sunk into insignificance36 after his death, and Philip of Macedon commenced the subjugation37 of all Greece. He was followed by Alexander the Great, who, in return for the loss of republican liberty, rendered Greece illustrious by conquering the Persian empire, and imbuing38 all the Eastern World with its philosophy and arts. For all these great events one hundred years were required.
429—The death of the illustrious Pericles occurred in this year.
[87]
” —Plato, the disciple39 of Socrates, and, in some points, superior to him in mental discipline, was born.
420—About this time Alcibiades, the nephew of Pericles, became prominent in Athenian affairs. He had brilliant powers, but little principle.
406—The battle of ?gospotamos, gained by Lysander the Spartan, broke the power of Athens.
404—Athens was taken by Lysander, its walls demolished40, and the government of the “Thirty Tyrants” established by the Spartans. Alcibiades, banished41 from Athens, was assassinated42 by the Persians, at the instigation of the Spartans.
401—Occurred the battle of Cunaxa, in Babylonia, between Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes, king of Persia, and that king. Cyrus, who had been governor, or satrap, in Asia Minor, gathered a large army including more than 10,000 Greeks. Cyrus was killed and his own army defeated, but the Greeks repelled43 all assaults. Their generals having been decoyed into the power of the Persians, on the plea of making terms with them, were treacherously44 slain. The army appointed other commanders, chief among whom was Xenophon, afterward45 the celebrated46 historian, and they made good their return to Greece. It was finely described by Xenophon, and known as the “Retreat of the Ten Thousand.”
400—Socrates taught doctrines47 too pure and high-toned for his countrymen to understand, and was condemned49 to drink poison, as a dangerous man and despiser of the gods, in the 70th year of his age. The Athenians soon repented50 it.
396—The capital of Veii, taken by the Romans, ended the contest with the Etruscans.
389—Rome was conquered and, except the capitol, destroyed, by the Gauls under Brennus. The barbarians51 soon retired52 and the city was rebuilt.
[88]
384—Aristotle, the most learned of the Grecian philosophers, was born at Stagira, in Macedon. He laid the foundation of scientific study, and was the tutor of Alexander the Great.
371—Epaminondas defeated the Spartans at Leuctra, and 362—again at Mantinea, where he was killed.
360—Philip became king of Macedon, and soon began to undermine the liberties of Greece in a very artful way.
357—The “Sacred War” against the Phocians, who had plundered53 the temple of Apollo, at Delphi, commenced.
356—Birth of Alexander the Great. Rutilius, the first plebean dictator at Rome.
349—Death of Plato, the brightest light of Grecian philosophy. He systematized and enlarged the doctrines of Socrates.
338—Occurred the battle of Chaeronea between Philip and the allied Athenians and Thebans. The Greeks were totally defeated and their liberty lost. Demosthenes, the most celebrated orator54 of the Greeks, spent his whole life and his magnificent eloquence55 in the effort to rouse the Greeks against Philip; but Philip was too crafty56 and the Greeks too little accustomed to act in concert. For nearly a hundred years the states of Greece had been exhausted57 by wars among themselves, and they were too weary of fighting to make the necessary effort against so powerful and skillful an adversary58.
336—Philip was assassinated on the eve of an expedition against Persia, as chief of the Grecian states. This popular idea consoled them for the loss of liberty. Alexander succeeded his father.
335—Thebes rebelled against Alexander, and he took and destroyed that ancient city.
334—Alexander carried out the project of his father and invaded the Persian empire. The battle of the Granicus, his first great victory, took place this year.
[89]
333—Darius, the Persian king, was again thoroughly59 defeated in the battle of Issus. Damascus, in Syria, was taken and Tyre besieged by Alexander.
332—Tyre was taken and finally destroyed, and Alexandria, at the mouth of the Nile, founded.
331—A final battle at Arbela, in Assyria, overthrew60 the Persian Empire. Darius escaped, but was murdered by Bessus, one of his officers. Four years were spent by the Greeks in subduing61 the wild tribes on the eastern border of the Empire, and settling the government of these vast conquests.
327—Alexander invaded India and was constantly triumphant62 till his soldiers refused to go farther from home. They had grown tired of conquering, and Alexander reluctantly returned to Babylon to consolidate63 his government.
323—Alexander died of a fever, the result of excessive drinking. He left no heir, and his generals divided his empire.
322—The Samnites obtained a temporary success by surprising a Roman army in a narrow defile64 of the mountains called the Candine Forks, and subjected it to a humiliating capitulation. The Romans never bowed before misfortune or defeat. They prosecuted65 the war with invincible66 resolution until the Samnite power was wholly broken, a contest, in all, of about 50 years, which was soon followed by the complete subjugation of the whole peninsula.
3. In this year died the two greatest Grecians, Demosthenes, the orator, by suicide; and Aristotle, by old age. On the death of Alexander, Demosthenes aroused the Athenians to make a stand for their liberties. Few of the Grecian states joined them and they were totally defeated by Antipater, the governor appointed by Alexander. Demosthenes avoided punishment by taking poison. The Achaian League, about forty years after, maintained the liberties of Greece for fifty[90] years or more, which then fell before the invincible Romans. For many years all the eastern world was in confusion from the struggles of competitors for the Empire of Alexander. Ptolemy established himself soon and firmly in Egypt, and Seleucus, after various
312—Reverses, obtained full possession of the eastern parts of the empire, Babylonia, Assyria and Persia. This year is called the era of the Seleucid?. Asia Minor and Greece were a scene of the greatest confusion for seventy years, so far as rulers were concerned. But nearly all these were Greeks, and Greek culture and philosophy exerted a wide spread influence. In the end it became fully67 evident that the want of genius in the Greek mind to organize, and steadiness in Greek character to sustain, settled institutions was absolute. They had, at different times, men of the greatest ability, but when they passed away their plans and institutions perished with them. The acute and accomplished68 Greeks were ever children in the science of government, and the advent69 of Rome alone, whose special skill was in government, saved the world from irretrievable anarchy70 or fatal despotism.
300—The Roman plebeans completed their struggle for constitutional liberty by acquiring a share in the priestly office, which was essential to the full value of their other victories over the patricians, and the Roman constitution was complete. It was maintained very fairly for more that one hundred and fifty years, when the spoils of their conquests corrupted71 the virtue72 of the citizens and produced the internal disorder73 that, about a century later still brought about the establishment of the Roman Empire. Yet the forms of government, municipal and other regulations, and the administration of justice, though often interfered74 with in particular cases, were so well settled on sound principles, and secured so uniformly the welfare of society, that they[91] were preserved longest from general ruin, and revived first in more modern times. Greek thought and culture, and Roman law remained indestructible.
290—The Samnites, Sabines and Gauls, being all defeated, Rome was virtually mistress of Italy, although the Grecian cities on the eastern coast remained to be subdued. They had little strength in themselves against a power so warlike, and invited Pyrrhus, the king of 281—Epirus, to their assistance. He twice defeated the Roman consuls75, but they inflicted76 on him so much loss that they vainly offered him battle immediately after, and rejected all his overtures77 to treat for peace. He was at length vanquished78 and obliged to abandon Italy to the Republic.
4. The Romans soon subdued all opposition79 and began to look about for other lands to conquer.
264—The Carthaginians, on the opposite coast of Africa, had become a colossal80 power, and sought to establish their control over Sicily—not an easy task, since it had many colonies of Greeks whose national spirit and bravery did not desert them. In this year a call for assistance from a plundering81 band who had captured a Greek city, a part of whom had also invited Carthaginian aid, brought Rome and Carthage in conflict. The Carthaginians were enraged82 at this interference with an island which they had long intended to make their own, and raised an immense army to drive out the intruders. The Romans defeated the army and took Agrigentum, one of the best strongholds of the Carthaginians on the island.
260—The Carthaginians were masters of the sea, and the Romans had little knowledge of naval83 affairs. Taking a Carthaginian vessel84 which had been driven ashore85 for a model, they, in a short time, created a fleet and worsted their enemies on their own special element.
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256—The Romans again defeated the Carthaginians in a sea fight near the island of Lipara.
255—The Romans determined86 to carry the war into Africa, and fitting out a large fleet, inflicted a still heavier loss on the Carthaginian armaments, landed in Africa and defeated an immense army. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but the terms proposed by Regulus, the Roman general, were so severe that they resolved to continue the war. A Grecian general, Xanthippus, took command of their army and totally defeated the Romans, taking Regulus prisoner, and destroying or 248—capturing all his army but 2000. The Romans lost three fleets by storms, but conquered once in a sea fight, and defeated an army in Sicily. The Carthaginians again sought peace, but the Romans would not abate87 their first terms, and continued the war until the 240—Carthaginians, completely humbled88, accepted the severe alternative of submission or destruction. The temple of Janus, the god of war, never shut but in time of absolute peace, was now closed for the second time since the building of the city.
The people, whose special occupation was war, soon grew tired of peace, and carried on various conflicts with the Gauls settled at the foot of the Alps in the 227—north of Italy. They invaded Illyria, on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea, whose people were very troublesome pirates. This war was again renewed with a more complete defeat of the Illyrians. They had before this subdued Sardinia and Corsica.
219—The Carthaginians pursued their conquests in Spain, and the celebrated Hannibal took Saguntum, which 218—brought on the second Punic war, as the war with Carthage was termed.
217—Hannibal, with great celerity, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps—having first completed the conquest of[93] Spain—and defeated the Romans in the battle of Ticinus, and again at Trebia.
217—The Achaian confederacy, now in the height of its glory in maintaining the liberties of Greece, united all the Greeks in a confederacy under the influence of Philip, king of Macedon, with the hope of arresting the power and ambition of Rome.
216—Hannibal inflicted a dreadful defeat on the Romans near the Thrasymenean Lake. The Romans were greatly alarmed, and made Fabius Maximus dictator, whose habit of refusing a pitched battle, wearing out his adversary by skirmishes and cutting off his supplies, is called “The Fabian Policy.” This plan is, by maneuvering89 and delay, to wear out and destroy an invader90 in detail without peril91 of defeat in battle. The Romans kept armies in Spain to prevent the Carthaginians from sending reinforcements to Hannibal.
215—At the close of this year Fabius resigned his dictatorship and the consuls appointed to succeed him abandoned his policy. They offered battle to Hannibal at Cann? and the army was annihilated92. 40,000 Romans were slain on the field. These defeats had destroyed the flower of their fighting population, but Roman courage and resolution always rose with defeat. They did not despair, but raised a fresh army and put Fabius again at its head, against whom the talents of Hannibal were vain. They fomented93 disturbances94 in Greece to keep Philip, King of Macedon at home, and besieged Syracuse in Sicily, which had joined the Carthaginians, 212—for three years, and then took it by stratagem95. Archimedes, a celebrated mathematician96 of Syracuse, who had protracted97 the siege by his ingenious and powerful engines was killed in the sack of the city. Soon 210—after the whole island was subdued and remained a Roman province.
206—Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, general of the Carthaginian[94] forces in Spain, crossed the Pyrenees and the Alps to reinforce Hannibal, but was defeated by the Romans and slain before Hannibal knew of his march.
202—Scipio, who had conquered in Spain, led an army into Africa, Hannibal being considered too formidable to attack, though his forces were very small. Scipio put 40,000 Numidians, allies of Carthage, to the sword, besieged the neighboring cities and defeated a large Carthaginian army. Hannibal was now called home to defend the metropolis98. He fought a battle with raw 201—troops, at Zama, and was defeated—20,000 Carthaginians being slain. The Carthaginians begged for peace, Hannibal declaring that the war could not be protracted. The Roman terms left them little but their city. Such was the fruit of inflexible99 resolution.
5. The Romans are an example of a people, who, from first to last, had one clearly defined end, to which everything else was subservient100. They formed their state for conquest, and that idea controlled the Kingdom, the Republic and the Empire. They were much wiser than the Spartans, for, devoting themselves to war, they meant to secure and enjoy all the fruits of conquest, and they did all that was possible to promote the prosperity of their people that they might produce warriors101 in abundance; but they relied mainly on actual war for discipline. They were constantly exercised in the art in the field and the orderly and sensible instinct of the race made discipline a matter of course. They were sometimes defeated when they encountered unfamiliar102 difficulties, or by the mistakes of their leaders, but never abandoned a purpose once adopted and never sued for peace.
Morally, the object they set before them was entirely103 unjustifiable, according to the standard of national rights accepted in our day. But such a conception never entered the minds of men in the ancient times. It is the fruit of modern civilization alone. The Romans, and many a nation after them, must work out the destructive consequences of that doctrine48[95] that “Might makes Right” before the universal sense of mankind would recoil104 from it. It was the accepted doctrine of the ancients, and has not yet disappeared from the world.
197—Sicily, Spain and Carthage were conquered, and Roman valor105 looked around for opportunities of winning fresh laurels106. Philip of Macedon, an ambitious prince, threatened the Athenians, who implored107 help from Rome. An army immediately proceeded to Greece, penetrated108 into Macedonia, and completely defeated Philip at Cynocephal?.
6. The Romans were now the mightiest109 people in the civilized110 world. Their obstinate111 contests with the vigorous nations of the West had often perilled112 the existence of their state, and a people of ordinary stamina113 and persistence114 would not, at the best, have risen above the rank of the Etruscans and Samnites, nor have made Rome greater than Syracuse or Carthage. They, however, matured and grew into an invincible power, whose solid and stately grandeur115 struck the intelligent but unpractical Greeks with admiration116, and all the old peoples of the East with awe117.
The Romans were not without admiration for the ancient valor and the graceful118 culture of the Greeks. When, two hundred and fifty years before, the Romans revised their laws, under the Decemvirate, they sent to Athens to obtain models from that republic. Athens was now treated by them with much consideration, and finally became the University City of the Empire. When Roman influence became paramount119 after the battle of Cynocephal? they did not at once proceed with brutal120 force against the land of Beauty and Art, but took it under their protection, and proclaimed the full liberty of the Grecian States. It filled the Greeks with transport, and for some time Rome played the noble and dignified121 part of a disinterested122 protector; but when the Achaians, under their excellent and talented leader Philop?men, sought to realize the fact of liberty, the Romans abandoned that pretence123 and made Greece a Roman province. Thus the whole of Europe[96] that was sufficiently124 civilized to maintain a settled government was ruled by the Roman Republic. The period of rude and restless valor among the Greeks was past. The stage of cultivation125 they had reached inclined them to the quiet and elegant refinements126 of the scholar, and they readily received the Roman rule which suppressed the turbulence127 of ambitious adventurers and suffered no oppression but their own. The Romans represented the strength of the male element in human nature, the Greeks the grace of the female. They now coalesced128, were married, so to speak, and the product of their union was, in the course of ages, modern civilization, which, when mature, was to share the eminent qualities of both.
7. The broken fragments of Alexander’s immense empire in Western Asia and Egypt were all that now stood between Rome and the mastery of the world. The Roman people were too well convinced that it was their grand destiny to achieve universal dominion to hasten prematurely129 the conquest of the primitive130 home of civilization. They watchfully131 waited until the course of events should throw the dominions132 of the Seleucid? and the Ptolemys into their hands, without offending the majesty133 of the republic by an undignified violence and haste.
190—Antiochus the Great, who now reigned134 over the empire of the Seleucid?, with true Grecian imprudence, became ambitious of conquests in Europe. He invaded Greece 191—and was defeated at Thermopyl? by the Romans and driven into Asia. The younger Scipio, brother of the conqueror135 of Hannibal, followed and totally defeated 189—him at Magnesia, in Asia Minor. He purchased peace by the loss of all the fruits of his ambition, but was left in possession of the Syrian kingdom. The failure to destroy so powerful an enemy appears to have brought on the two Scipios the rebuke136 of the republic, the conqueror of Carthage having aided his brother in the war. They were condemned to a heavy fine, which Scipio Africanus refused to pay and went int[97]o 183—exile, where he died. His death occurred in the same year that Hannibal, pursued by the vengeance of the Romans for having aided Antiochus, committed suicide by taking poison to avoid falling into their hands; and in this year also Philop?men, the last patriotic137 hero 170—of Greece, was slain by his enemies. Perses, king of Macedon, revolted, and, after some successes, was finally overthrown138 under the walls of Pydna and dethroned.
168—The Carthaginians could not altogether forget their ancient greatness, and having displeased139 the Romans by some independence of action, it was resolved to 148—destroy their city. With the courage of despair they set the Romans at defiance, and defended themselves with a resolute140 bravery that engaged the lively sympathies of all after times for their painful fate. For two years they maintained the combat against their pitiless foes141, who could pardon everything but rivalry142 in their 146—sweeping ambition, and then perished in the ruins of their once glorious metropolis. A revolt of the Achaians was punished, in the same year, by the destruction of the splendid city of Corinth, in Greece.
140—The embers of independence in Spain broke forth in war, which was checked by the assassination of Viriathes, a patriotic chieftain of great ability, and 133—quenched in blood by the self-destruction of the citizens of Numantium. About the same time the republic acquired the kingdom of Pergamus, covering the richest parts of Asia Minor, by the will of Attalus, its king, who, on his death, bequeathed it to Rome. This led, in a few years, to contests with the neighboring Asiatic sovereigns, and resulted, in about half a century, in the conquest and reduction into the state of Roman provinces of all Western Asia.
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1
chronological
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| adj.按年月顺序排列的，年代学的 | |
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appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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chastise
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| vt.责骂，严惩 | |
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minor
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| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
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restive
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| adj.不安宁的，不安静的 | |
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vengeance
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| n.报复，报仇，复仇 | |
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besieged
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| 包围，围困，围攻( besiege的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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plebeians
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| n.平民( plebeian的名词复数 )；庶民；平民百姓；平庸粗俗的人 | |
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patricians
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| n.（古罗马的）统治阶层成员( patrician的名词复数 )；贵族，显贵 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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frivolous
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| adj.轻薄的；轻率的 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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spartan
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| adj.简朴的，刻苦的；n.斯巴达；斯巴达式的人 | |
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spartans
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| n.斯巴达（spartan的复数形式） | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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allied
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| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
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sculptor
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| n.雕刻家，雕刻家 | |
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commemorate
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| vt.纪念，庆祝 | |
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nemesis
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| n.给以报应者，复仇者，难以对付的敌手 | |
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banishment
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| n.放逐，驱逐 | |
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eminent
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| adj.显赫的，杰出的，有名的，优良的 | |
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assassination
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| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
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superseded
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| [医]被代替的，废弃的 | |
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supremacy
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| n.至上；至高权力 | |
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Mediterranean
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| adj.地中海的；地中海沿岸的 | |
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sculptors
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| 雕刻家，雕塑家( sculptor的名词复数 )； [天]玉夫座 | |
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tragic
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| adj.悲剧的，悲剧性的，悲惨的 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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32
magistrates
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| 地方法官，治安官( magistrate的名词复数 ) | |
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33
wresting
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| 动词wrest的现在进行式 | |
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34
penetrating
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| adj.（声音）响亮的，尖锐的adj.（气味）刺激的adj.（思想）敏锐的，有洞察力的 | |
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35
monarchies
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| n. 君主政体, 君主国, 君主政治 | |
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36
insignificance
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| n.不重要；无价值；无意义 | |
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37
subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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38
imbuing
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| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的现在分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
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39
disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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40
demolished
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| v.摧毁( demolish的过去式和过去分词 )；推翻；拆毁（尤指大建筑物）；吃光 | |
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41
banished
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| v.放逐，驱逐( banish的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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42
assassinated
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| v.暗杀( assassinate的过去式和过去分词 )；中伤；诋毁；破坏 | |
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repelled
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| v.击退( repel的过去式和过去分词 )；使厌恶；排斥；推开 | |
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44
treacherously
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| 背信弃义地； 背叛地； 靠不住地； 危险地 | |
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45
afterward
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| adv.后来；以后 | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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47
doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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48
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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49
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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50
repented
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| 对（自己的所为）感到懊悔或忏悔( repent的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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51
barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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52
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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53
plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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54
orator
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| n.演说者，演讲者，雄辩家 | |
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55
eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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56
crafty
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| adj.狡猾的，诡诈的 | |
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57
exhausted
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| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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58
adversary
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| adj.敌手，对手 | |
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59
thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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60
overthrew
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| overthrow的过去式 | |
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61
subduing
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| 征服( subdue的现在分词 )； 克制； 制服； 色变暗 | |
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62
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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63
consolidate
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| v.使加固，使加强；(把...)联为一体，合并 | |
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64
defile
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| v.弄污，弄脏；n.(山间)小道 | |
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65
prosecuted
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| a.被起诉的 | |
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66
invincible
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| adj.不可征服的，难以制服的 | |
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67
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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68
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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69
advent
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| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
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70
anarchy
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| n.无政府状态；社会秩序混乱，无秩序 | |
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71
corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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72
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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73
disorder
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| n.紊乱，混乱；骚动，骚乱；疾病，失调 | |
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74
interfered
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| v.干预( interfere的过去式和过去分词 )；调停；妨碍；干涉 | |
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75
consuls
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| 领事( consul的名词复数 )； （古罗马共和国时期）执政官 （古罗马共和国及其军队的最高首长，同时共有两位，每年选举一次） | |
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76
inflicted
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| 把…强加给，使承受，遭受( inflict的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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77
overtures
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| n.主动的表示，提议；（向某人做出的）友好表示、姿态或提议( overture的名词复数 )；（歌剧、芭蕾舞、音乐剧等的）序曲，前奏曲 | |
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78
vanquished
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| v.征服( vanquish的过去式和过去分词 )；战胜；克服；抑制 | |
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79
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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80
colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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81
plundering
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的现在分词 ) | |
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82
enraged
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| 使暴怒( enrage的过去式和过去分词 )； 歜； 激愤 | |
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83
naval
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| adj.海军的，军舰的，船的 | |
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84
vessel
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| n.船舶；容器，器皿；管，导管，血管 | |
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85
ashore
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| adv.在(向)岸上，上岸 | |
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86
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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87
abate
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| vi.(风势，疼痛等)减弱，减轻，减退 | |
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88
humbled
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| adj. 卑下的，谦逊的，粗陋的 vt. 使 ... 卑下，贬低 | |
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89
maneuvering
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| v.移动，用策略( maneuver的现在分词 )；操纵 | |
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90
invader
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| n.侵略者，侵犯者，入侵者 | |
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91
peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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92
annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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93
fomented
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| v.激起，煽动（麻烦等）( foment的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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94
disturbances
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| n.骚乱( disturbance的名词复数 )；打扰；困扰；障碍 | |
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95
stratagem
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| n.诡计，计谋 | |
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96
mathematician
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| n.数学家 | |
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97
protracted
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| adj.拖延的；延长的v.拖延“protract”的过去式和过去分词 | |
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98
metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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99
inflexible
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| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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100
subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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101
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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102
unfamiliar
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| adj.陌生的，不熟悉的 | |
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103
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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104
recoil
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| vi.退却，退缩，畏缩 | |
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105
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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106
laurels
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| n.桂冠，荣誉 | |
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107
implored
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| 恳求或乞求（某人）( implore的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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108
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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109
mightiest
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| adj.趾高气扬( mighty的最高级 )；巨大的；强有力的；浩瀚的 | |
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110
civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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111
obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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112
perilled
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| 置…于危险中（peril的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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113
stamina
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| n.体力；精力；耐力 | |
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114
persistence
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| n.坚持，持续，存留 | |
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115
grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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116
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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117
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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118
graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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119
paramount
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| a.最重要的，最高权力的 | |
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120
brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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121
dignified
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| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
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122
disinterested
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| adj.不关心的，不感兴趣的 | |
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123
pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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124
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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125
cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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126
refinements
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| n.（生活）风雅；精炼( refinement的名词复数 )；改良品；细微的改良；优雅或高贵的动作 | |
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127
turbulence
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| n.喧嚣，狂暴，骚乱，湍流 | |
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128
coalesced
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| v.联合，合并( coalesce的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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129
prematurely
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| adv.过早地，贸然地 | |
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130
primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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131
watchfully
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| 警惕地，留心地 | |
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132
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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133
majesty
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| n.雄伟，壮丽，庄严，威严；最高权威，王权 | |
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134
reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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135
conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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136
rebuke
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| v.指责，非难，斥责 [反]praise | |
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137
patriotic
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| adj.爱国的，有爱国心的 | |
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138
overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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139
displeased
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| a.不快的 | |
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140
resolute
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| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
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141
foes
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| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
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142
rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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