Mr. Desai led us at once to the writing room where, cross-legged, sat Mahatma Gandhi. Pen in one hand and a scrap2 of paper in the other, on his face a vast, winning, warm-hearted smile!
Though this was our first meeting, we beamed on each other affectionately. In 1925 Mahatma Gandhi had honored the Ranchi school by a visit, and had inscribed4 in its guest-book a gracious tribute.
The tiny 100-pound saint radiated physical, mental, and spiritual health. His soft brown eyes shone with intelligence, sincerity5, and discrimination; this statesman has matched wits and emerged the victor in a thousand legal, social, and political battles. No other leader in the world has attained7 the secure niche8 in the hearts of his people that Gandhi occupies for India's unlettered millions. Their spontaneous tribute is his famous title-Mahatma, "great soul." 44-1 For them alone Gandhi confines his attire9 to the widely-cartooned loincloth, symbol of his oneness with the downtrodden masses who can afford no more.
gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi
I enjoy a quiet lunch with India's political saint at his hermitage in Wardha, August, 1935.
"The ashram residents are wholly at your disposal; please call on them for any service." With characteristic courtesy, the Mahatma handed me this hastily-written note as Mr. Desai led our party from the writing room toward the guest house.
Our guide led us through orchards10 and flowering fields to a tile- roofed building with latticed windows. A front-yard well, twenty-five feet across, was used, Mr. Desai said, for watering stock; near-by stood a revolving11 cement wheel for threshing rice. Each of our small bedrooms proved to contain only the irreducible minimum-a bed, handmade of rope. The whitewashed12 kitchen boasted a faucet13 in one corner and a fire pit for cooking in another. Simple Arcadian sounds reached our ears-the cries of crows and sparrows, the lowing of cattle, and the rap of chisels14 being used to chip stones.
Observing Mr. Wright's travel diary, Mr. Desai opened a page and wrote on it a list of Satyagraha 44-2 vows16 taken by all the Mahatma's strict followers17 (satyagrahis):
"Nonviolence; Truth; Non-Stealing; Celibacy18; Non-Possession; Body- Labor19; Control of the Palate; Fearlessness; Equal Respect for all Religions; Swadeshi (use of home manufactures); Freedom from Untouchability. These eleven should be observed as vows in a spirit of humility20."
(Gandhi himself signed this page on the following day, giving the date also-August 27, 1935.)
Two hours after our arrival my companions and I were summoned to lunch. The Mahatma was already seated under the arcade21 of the ashram porch, across the courtyard from his study. About twenty-five barefooted satyagrahis were squatting22 before brass23 cups and plates. A community chorus of prayer; then a meal served from large brass pots containing chapatis (whole-wheat unleavened bread) sprinkled with ghee; talsari (boiled and diced24 vegetables), and a lemon jam.
The Mahatma ate chapatis, boiled beets25, some raw vegetables, and oranges. On the side of his plate was a large lump of very bitter neem leaves, a notable blood cleanser. With his spoon he separated a portion and placed it on my dish. I bolted it down with water, remembering childhood days when Mother had forced me to swallow the disagreeable dose. Gandhi, however, bit by bit was eating the neem paste with as much relish26 as if it had been a delicious sweetmeat.
In this trifling27 incident I noted28 the Mahatma's ability to detach his mind from the senses at will. I recalled the famous appendectomy performed on him some years ago. Refusing anesthetics, the saint had chatted cheerfully with his disciples31 throughout the operation, his infectious smile revealing his unawareness32 of pain.
The afternoon brought an opportunity for a chat with Gandhi's noted disciple30, daughter of an English admiral, Miss Madeleine Slade, now called Mirabai. 44-3 Her strong, calm face lit with enthusiasm as she told me, in flawless Hindi, of her daily activities.
"Rural reconstruction33 work is rewarding! A group of us go every morning at five o'clock to serve the near-by villagers and teach them simple hygiene34. We make it a point to clean their latrines and their mud-thatched huts. The villagers are illiterate35; they cannot be educated except by example!" She laughed gaily36.
I looked in admiration37 at this highborn Englishwoman whose true Christian38 humility enables her to do the scavengering work usually performed only by "untouchables."
"I came to India in 1925," she told me. "In this land I feel that I have 'come back home.' Now I would never be willing to return to my old life and old interests."
We discussed America for awhile. "I am always pleased and amazed," she said, "to see the deep interest in spiritual subjects exhibited by the many Americans who visit India." 44-4
Mirabai's hands were soon busy at the charka (spinning wheel), omnipresent in all the ashram rooms and, indeed, due to the Mahatma, omnipresent throughout rural India.
Gandhi has sound economic and cultural reasons for encouraging the revival39 of cottage industries, but he does not counsel a fanatical repudiation40 of all modern progress. Machinery41, trains, automobiles42, the telegraph have played important parts in his own colossal43 life! Fifty years of public service, in prison and out, wrestling daily with practical details and harsh realities in the political world, have only increased his balance, open-mindedness, sanity44, and humorous appreciation45 of the quaint46 human spectacle.
Our trio enjoyed a six o'clock supper as guests of Babasaheb Deshmukh. The 7:00 P.M. prayer hour found us back at the Maganvadi ashram, climbing to the roof where thirty satyagrahis were grouped in a semicircle around Gandhi. He was squatting on a straw mat, an ancient pocket watch propped47 up before him. The fading sun cast a last gleam over the palms and banyans; the hum of night and the crickets had started. The atmosphere was serenity48 itself; I was enraptured49.
A solemn chant led by Mr. Desai, with responses from the group; then a Gita reading. The Mahatma motioned to me to give the concluding prayer. Such divine unison50 of thought and aspiration51! A memory forever: the Wardha roof top meditation52 under the early stars.
Punctually at eight o'clock Gandhi ended his silence. The herculean labors53 of his life require him to apportion54 his time minutely.
"Welcome, Swamiji!" The Mahatma's greeting this time was not via paper. We had just descended55 from the roof to his writing room, simply furnished with square mats (no chairs), a low desk with books, papers, and a few ordinary pens (not fountain pens); a nondescript clock ticked in a corner. An all-pervasive aura of peace and devotion. Gandhi was bestowing57 one of his captivating, cavernous, almost toothless smiles.
"Years ago," he explained, "I started my weekly observance of a day of silence as a means for gaining time to look after my correspondence. But now those twenty-four hours have become a vital spiritual need. A periodical decree of silence is not a torture but a blessing58."
I agreed wholeheartedly. 44-5 The Mahatma questioned me about America and Europe; we discussed India and world conditions.
"Mahadev," Gandhi said as Mr. Desai entered the room, "please make arrangements at Town Hall for Swamiji to speak there on yoga tomorrow night."
As I was bidding the Mahatma good night, he considerately handed me a bottle of citronella oil.
"The Wardha mosquitoes don't know a thing about ahimsa, 44-6 Swamiji!" he said, laughing.
The following morning our little group breakfasted early on a tasty wheat porridge with molasses and milk. At ten-thirty we were called to the ashram porch for lunch with Gandhi and the satyagrahis. Today the menu included brown rice, a new selection of vegetables, and cardamom seeds.
Noon found me strolling about the ashram grounds, on to the grazing land of a few imperturbable59 cows. The protection of cows is a passion with Gandhi.
"The cow to me means the entire sub-human world, extending man's sympathies beyond his own species," the Mahatma has explained. "Man through the cow is enjoined60 to realize his identity with all that lives. Why the ancient rishis selected the cow for apotheosis61 is obvious to me. The cow in India was the best comparison; she was the giver of plenty. Not only did she give milk, but she also made agriculture possible. The cow is a poem of pity; one reads pity in the gentle animal. She is the second mother to millions of mankind. Protection of the cow means protection of the whole dumb creation of God. The appeal of the lower order of creation is all the more forceful because it is speechless."
Three daily rituals are enjoined on the orthodox Hindu. One is Bhuta Yajna, an offering of food to the animal kingdom. This ceremony symbolizes62 man's realization63 of his obligations to less evolved forms of creation, instinctively64 tied to bodily identifications which also corrode65 human life, but lacking in that quality of liberating66 reason which is peculiar67 to humanity. Bhuta Yajna thus reinforces man's readiness to succor68 the weak, as he in turn is comforted by countless69 solicitudes70 of higher unseen beings. Man is also under bond for rejuvenating71 gifts of nature, prodigal72 in earth, sea, and sky. The evolutionary73 barrier of incommunicability among nature, animals, man, and astral angels is thus overcome by offices of silent love.
The other two daily yajnas are Pitri and Nri. Pitri Yajna is an offering of oblations to ancestors, as a symbol of man's acknowledgment of his debt to the past, essence of whose wisdom illumines humanity today. Nri Yajna is an offering of food to strangers or the poor, symbol of the present responsibilities of man, his duties to contemporaries.
In the early afternoon I fulfilled a neighborly Nri Yajna by a visit to Gandhi's ashram for little girls. Mr. Wright accompanied me on the ten-minute drive. Tiny young flowerlike faces atop the long-stemmed colorful saris! At the end of a brief talk in Hindi 44-7 which I was giving outdoors, the skies unloosed a sudden downpour. Laughing, Mr. Wright and I climbed aboard the car and sped back to Maganvadi amidst sheets of driving silver. Such tropical intensity74 and splash!
Reentering the guest house I was struck anew by the stark75 simplicity76 and evidences of self-sacrifice which are everywhere present. The Gandhi vow15 of non-possession came early in his married life. Renouncing78 an extensive legal practice which had been yielding him an annual income of more than $20,000, the Mahatma dispersed79 all his wealth to the poor.
"A beggar cannot renounce82 wealth," Master would say. "If a man laments83: 'My business has failed; my wife has left me; I will renounce all and enter a monastery,' to what worldly sacrifice is he referring? He did not renounce wealth and love; they renounced85 him!"
Saints like Gandhi, on the other hand, have made not only tangible86 material sacrifices, but also the more difficult renunciation of selfish motive87 and private goal, merging88 their inmost being in the stream of humanity as a whole.
The Mahatma's remarkable89 wife, Kasturabai, did not object when he failed to set aside any part of his wealth for the use of herself and their children. Married in early youth, Gandhi and his wife took the vow of celibacy after the birth of several sons. 44-8 A tranquil90 heroine in the intense drama that has been their life together, Kasturabai has followed her husband to prison, shared his three-week fasts, and fully29 borne her share of his endless responsibilities. She has paid Gandhi the following tribute:
I thank you for having had the privilege of being your lifelong companion and helpmate. I thank you for the most perfect marriage in the world, based on brahmacharya (self-control) and not on sex. I thank you for having considered me your equal in your life work for India. I thank you for not being one of those husbands who spend their time in gambling91, racing92, women, wine, and song, tiring of their wives and children as the little boy quickly tires of his childhood toys. How thankful I am that you were not one of those husbands who devote their time to growing rich on the exploitation of the labor of others.
How thankful I am that you put God and country before bribes93, that you had the courage of your convictions and a complete and implicit77 faith in God. How thankful I am for a husband that put God and his country before me. I am grateful to you for your tolerance94 of me and my shortcomings of youth, when I grumbled95 and rebelled against the change you made in our mode of living, from so much to so little.
As a young child, I lived in your parents' home; your mother was a great and good woman; she trained me, taught me how to be a brave, courageous96 wife and how to keep the love and respect of her son, my future husband. As the years passed and you became India's most beloved leader, I had none of the fears that beset97 the wife who may be cast aside when her husband has climbed the ladder of success, as so often happens in other countries. I knew that death would still find us husband and wife.
For years Kasturabai performed the duties of treasurer98 of the public funds which the idolized Mahatma is able to raise by the millions. There are many humorous stories in Indian homes to the effect that husbands are nervous about their wives' wearing any jewelry99 to a Gandhi meeting; the Mahatma's magical tongue, pleading for the downtrodden, charms the gold bracelets100 and diamond necklaces right off the arms and necks of the wealthy into the collection basket!
One day the public treasurer, Kasturabai, could not account for a disbursement101 of four rupees. Gandhi duly published an auditing102 in which he inexorably pointed103 out his wife's four rupee discrepancy104.
I had often told this story before classes of my American students. One evening a woman in the hall had given an outraged105 gasp106.
"Mahatma or no Mahatma," she had cried, "if he were my husband I would have given him a black eye for such an unnecessary public insult!"
After some good-humored banter107 had passed between us on the subject of American wives and Hindu wives, I had gone on to a fuller explanation.
"Mrs. Gandhi considers the Mahatma not as her husband but as her guru, one who has the right to discipline her for even insignificant108 errors," I had pointed out. "Sometime after Kasturabai had been publicly rebuked109, Gandhi was sentenced to prison on a political charge. As he was calmly bidding farewell to his wife, she fell at his feet. 'Master,' she said humbly110, 'if I have ever offended you, please forgive me.'" 44-9
At three o'clock that afternoon in Wardha, I betook myself, by previous appointment, to the writing room of the saint who had been able to make an unflinching disciple out of his own wife-rare miracle! Gandhi looked up with his unforgettable smile.
"Mahatmaji," I said as I squatted111 beside him on the uncushioned mat, "please tell me your definition of ahimsa."
"The avoidance of harm to any living creature in thought or deed."
"Beautiful ideal! But the world will always ask: May one not kill a cobra to protect a child, or one's self?"
"I could not kill a cobra without violating two of my vows- fearlessness, and non-killing112. I would rather try inwardly to calm the snake by vibrations113 of love. I cannot possibly lower my standards to suit my circumstances." With his amazing candor114, Gandhi added, "I must confess that I could not carry on this conversation were I faced by a cobra!"
I remarked on several very recent Western books on diet which lay on his desk.
"Yes, diet is important in the Satyagraha movement-as everywhere else," he said with a chuckle115. "Because I advocate complete continence for satyagrahis, I am always trying to find out the best diet for the celibate116. One must conquer the palate before he can control the procreative instinct. Semi-starvation or unbalanced diets are not the answer. After overcoming the inward greed for food, a satyagrahi must continue to follow a rational vegetarian117 diet with all necessary vitamins, minerals, calories, and so forth118. By inward and outward wisdom in regard to eating, the SATYAGRAHI'S sexual fluid is easily turned into vital energy for the whole body."
The Mahatma and I compared our knowledge of good meat-substitutes. "The avocado is excellent," I said. "There are numerous avocado groves119 near my center in California."
Gandhi's face lit with interest. "I wonder if they would grow in Wardha? The satyagrahis would appreciate a new food."
"I will be sure to send some avocado plants from Los Angeles to Wardha." 44-10 I added, "Eggs are a high-protein food; are they forbidden to satyagrahis?"
"Not unfertilized eggs." The Mahatma laughed reminiscently. "For years I would not countenance120 their use; even now I personally do not eat them. One of my daughters-in-law was once dying of malnutrition121; her doctor insisted on eggs. I would not agree, and advised him to give her some egg-substitute.
"I then gladly gave permission for my daughter-in-law to eat eggs; she was soon restored to health."
On the previous night Gandhi had expressed a wish to receive the Kriya Yoga of Lahiri Mahasaya. I was touched by the Mahatma's open- mindedness and spirit of inquiry123. He is childlike in his divine quest, revealing that pure receptivity which Jesus praised in children, ". . . of such is the kingdom of heaven."
The hour for my promised instruction had arrived; several satyagrahis now entered the room-Mr. Desai, Dr. Pingale, and a few others who desired the Kriya technique.
I first taught the little class the physical Yogoda exercises. The body is visualized124 as divided into twenty parts; the will directs energy in turn to each section. Soon everyone was vibrating before me like a human motor. It was easy to observe the rippling126 effect on Gandhi's twenty body parts, at all times completely exposed to view! Though very thin, he is not unpleasingly so; the skin of his body is smooth and unwrinkled.
The Mahatma has reverently129 studied all world religions. The Jain scriptures130, the Biblical New Testament132, and the sociological writings of Tolstoy 44-11 are the three main sources of Gandhi's nonviolent convictions. He has stated his credo thus:
I believe the Bible, the Koran, and the Zend-Avesta 44-12 to be as divinely inspired as the Vedas. I believe in the institution of Gurus, but in this age millions must go without a Guru, because it is a rare thing to find a combination of perfect purity and perfect learning. But one need not despair of ever knowing the truth of one's religion, because the fundamentals of Hinduism as of every great religion are unchangeable, and easily understood.
I believe like every Hindu in God and His oneness, in rebirth and salvation134. . . . I can no more describe my feeling for Hinduism than for my own wife. She moves me as no other woman in the world can. Not that she has no faults; I daresay she has many more than I see myself. But the feeling of an indissoluble bond is there. Even so I feel for and about Hinduism with all its faults and limitations. Nothing delights me so much as the music of the Gita, or the Ramayana by Tulsidas. When I fancied I was taking my last breath, the Gita was my solace135.
Hinduism is not an exclusive religion. In it there is room for the worship of all the prophets of the world. 44-13 It is not a missionary136 religion in the ordinary sense of the term. It has no doubt absorbed many tribes in its fold, but this absorption has been of an evolutionary, imperceptible character. Hinduism tells each man to worship God according to his own faith or dharma, 44-14 and so lives at peace with all religions.
Of Christ, Gandhi has written: "I am sure that if He were living here now among men, He would bless the lives of many who perhaps have never even heard His name . . . just as it is written: 'Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord . . . but he that doeth the will of my Father.' 44-15 In the lesson of His own life, Jesus gave humanity the magnificent purpose and the single objective toward which we all ought to aspire137. I believe that He belongs not solely138 to Christianity, but to the entire world, to all lands and races."
On my last evening in Wardha I addressed the meeting which had been called by Mr. Desai in Town Hall. The room was thronged139 to the window sills with about 400 people assembled to hear the talk on yoga. I spoke140 first in Hindi, then in English. Our little group returned to the ashram in time for a good-night glimpse of Gandhi, enfolded in peace and correspondence.
Night was still lingering when I rose at 5:00 A.M. Village life was already stirring; first a bullock cart by the ashram gates, then a peasant with his huge burden balanced precariously141 on his head. After breakfast our trio sought out Gandhi for farewell pronams. The saint rises at four o'clock for his morning prayer.
"Mahatmaji, good-by!" I knelt to touch his feet. "India is safe in your keeping!"
Years have rolled by since the Wardha idyl; the earth, oceans, and skies have darkened with a world at war. Alone among great leaders, Gandhi has offered a practical nonviolent alternative to armed might. To redress142 grievances143 and remove injustices145, the Mahatma has employed nonviolent means which again and again have proved their effectiveness. He states his doctrine146 in these words:
I have found that life persists in the midst of destruction. Therefore there must be a higher law than that of destruction. Only under that law would well-ordered society be intelligible147 and life worth living.
If that is the law of life we must work it out in daily existence. Wherever there are wars, wherever we are confronted with an opponent, conquer by love. I have found that the certain law of love has answered in my own life as the law of destruction has never done.
In India we have had an ocular demonstration148 of the operation of this law on the widest scale possible. I don't claim that nonviolence has penetrated149 the 360,000,000 people in India, but I do claim it has penetrated deeper than any other doctrine in an incredibly short time.
It takes a fairly strenuous150 course of training to attain6 a mental state of nonviolence. It is a disciplined life, like the life of a soldier. The perfect state is reached only when the mind, body, and speech are in proper coordination151. Every problem would lend itself to solution if we determined152 to make the law of truth and nonviolence the law of life.
Just as a scientist will work wonders out of various applications of the laws of nature, a man who applies the laws of love with scientific precision can work greater wonders. Nonviolence is infinitely153 more wonderful and subtle than forces of nature like, for instance, electricity. The law of love is a far greater science than any modern science.
Consulting history, one may reasonably state that the problems of mankind have not been solved by the use of brute154 force. World War I produced a world-chilling snowball of war karma that swelled155 into World War II. Only the warmth of brotherhood156 can melt the present colossal snowball of war karma which may otherwise grow into World War III. This unholy trinity will banish157 forever the possibility of World War IV by a finality of atomic bombs. Use of jungle logic133 instead of human reason in settling disputes will restore the earth to a jungle. If brothers not in life, then brothers in violent death.
War and crime never pay. The billions of dollars that went up in the smoke of explosive nothingness would have been sufficient to have made a new world, one almost free from disease and completely free from poverty. Not an earth of fear, chaos158, famine, pestilence159, the danse macabre160, but one broad land of peace, of prosperity, and of widening knowledge.
The nonviolent voice of Gandhi appeals to man's highest conscience. Let nations ally themselves no longer with death, but with life; not with destruction, but with construction; not with the Annihilator161, but with the Creator.
"One should forgive, under any injury," says the Mahabharata. "It hath been said that the continuation of species is due to man's being forgiving. Forgiveness is holiness; by forgiveness the universe is held together. Forgiveness is the might of the mighty162; forgiveness is sacrifice; forgiveness is quiet of mind. Forgiveness and gentleness are the qualities of the self-possessed. They represent eternal virtue163."
Nonviolence is the natural outgrowth of the law of forgiveness and love. "If loss of life becomes necessary in a righteous battle," Gandhi proclaims, "one should be prepared, like Jesus, to shed his own, not others', blood. Eventually there will be less blood spilt in the world."
Epics164 shall someday be written on the Indian satyagrahis who withstood hate with love, violence with nonviolence, who allowed themselves to be mercilessly slaughtered165 rather than retaliate166. The result on certain historic occasions was that the armed opponents threw down their guns and fled, shamed, shaken to their depths by the sight of men who valued the life of another above their own.
"I would wait, if need be for ages," Gandhi says, "rather than seek the freedom of my country through bloody167 means." Never does the Mahatma forget the majestic168 warning: "All they that take the sword shall perish with the sword." 44-16 Gandhi has written:
I call myself a nationalist, but my nationalism is as broad as the universe. It includes in its sweep all the nations of the earth. 44-17 My nationalism includes the well-being169 of the whole world. I do not want my India to rise on the ashes of other nations. I do not want India to exploit a single human being. I want India to be strong in order that she can infect the other nations also with her strength. Not so with a single nation in Europe today; they do not give strength to the others.
President Wilson mentioned his beautiful fourteen points, but said: "After all, if this endeavor of ours to arrive at peace fails, we have our armaments to fall back upon." I want to reverse that position, and I say: "Our armaments have failed already. Let us now be in search of something new; let us try the force of love and God which is truth." When we have got that, we shall want nothing else.
By the Mahatma's training of thousands of true satyagrahis (those who have taken the eleven rigorous vows mentioned in the first part of this chapter), who in turn spread the message; by patiently educating the Indian masses to understand the spiritual and eventually material benefits of nonviolence; by arming his people with nonviolent weapons- non-cooperation with injustice144, the willingness to endure indignities171, prison, death itself rather than resort to arms; by enlisting172 world sympathy through countless examples of heroic martyrdom among satyagrahis, Gandhi has dramatically portrayed173 the practical nature of nonviolence, its solemn power to settle disputes without war.
Gandhi has already won through nonviolent means a greater number of political concessions174 for his land than have ever been won by any leader of any country except through bullets. Nonviolent methods for eradication175 of all wrongs and evils have been strikingly applied176 not only in the political arena177 but in the delicate and complicated field of Indian social reform. Gandhi and his followers have removed many longstanding feuds178 between Hindus and Mohammedans; hundreds of thousands of Moslems look to the Mahatma as their leader. The untouchables have found in him their fearless and triumphant179 champion. "If there be a rebirth in store for me," Gandhi wrote, "I wish to be born a pariah180 in the midst of pariahs181, because thereby182 I would be able to render them more effective service."
The Mahatma is indeed a "great soul," but it was illiterate millions who had the discernment to bestow56 the title. This gentle prophet is honored in his own land. The lowly peasant has been able to rise to Gandhi's high challenge. The Mahatma wholeheartedly believes in the inherent nobility of man. The inevitable183 failures have never disillusioned184 him. "Even if the opponent plays him false twenty times," he writes, "the satyagrahi is ready to trust him the twenty- first time, for an implicit trust in human nature is the very essence of the creed185." 44-18
"Mahatmaji, you are an exceptional man. You must not expect the world to act as you do." A critic once made this observation.
"It is curious how we delude186 ourselves, fancying that the body can be improved, but that it is impossible to evoke187 the hidden powers of the soul," Gandhi replied. "I am engaged in trying to show that if I have any of those powers, I am as frail188 a mortal as any of us and that I never had anything extraordinary about me nor have I now. I am a simple individual liable to err84 like any other fellow mortal. I own, however, that I have enough humility to confess my errors and to retrace189 my steps. I own that I have an immovable faith in God and His goodness, and an unconsumable passion for truth and love. But is that not what every person has latent in him? If we are to make progress, we must not repeat history but make new history. We must add to the inheritance left by our ancestors. If we may make new discoveries and inventions in the phenomenal world, must we declare our bankruptcy190 in the spiritual domain191? Is it impossible to multiply the exceptions so as to make them the rule? Must man always be brute first and man after, if at all?" 44-19
Americans may well remember with pride the successful nonviolent experiment of William Penn in founding his 17th century colony in Pennsylvania. There were "no forts, no soldiers, no militia192, even no arms." Amidst the savage193 frontier wars and the butcheries that went on between the new settlers and the Red Indians, the Quakers of Pennsylvania alone remained unmolested. "Others were slain194; others were massacred; but they were safe. Not a Quaker woman suffered assault; not a Quaker child was slain, not a Quaker man was tortured." When the Quakers were finally forced to give up the government of the state, "war broke out, and some Pennsylvanians were killed. But only three Quakers were killed, three who had so far fallen from their faith as to carry weapons of defence."
"Resort to force in the Great War (I) failed to bring tranquillity," Franklin D. Roosevelt has pointed out. "Victory and defeat were alike sterile195. That lesson the world should have learned."
"The more weapons of violence, the more misery196 to mankind," Lao-tzu taught. "The triumph of violence ends in a festival of mourning."
"I am fighting for nothing less than world peace," Gandhi has declared. "If the Indian movement is carried to success on a nonviolent Satyagraha basis, it will give a new meaning to patriotism197 and, if I may say so in all humility, to life itself."
Before the West dismisses Gandhi's program as one of an impractical198 dreamer, let it first reflect on a definition of Satyagraha by the Master of Galilee:
"Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: but I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: 44-20 but whosoever shall smite199 thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also."
Gandhi's epoch200 has extended, with the beautiful precision of cosmic timing201, into a century already desolated202 and devastated203 by two World Wars. A divine handwriting appears on the granite204 wall of his life: a warning against the further shedding of blood among brothers.
MAHATMA GANDHI'S HANDWRITING IN HINDI
gandhi handwriting
Mahatma Gandhi visited my high school with yoga training at Ranchi. He graciously wrote the above lines in the Ranchi guest-book. The translation is: "This institution has deeply impressed my mind. I cherish high hopes that this school will encourage the further practical use of the spinning wheel."
(Signed) MOHANDAS GANDHI
September 17, 1925
gandhi handwriting
A national flag for India was designed in 1921 by Gandhi. The stripes are saffron, white and green; the charka (spinning wheel) in the center is dark blue. "The charka symbolizes energy," he wrote, "and reminds us that during the past eras of prosperity in India's history, hand spinning and other domestic crafts were prominent."
44-1: His family name is Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He never refers to himself as "Mahatma."
44-2: The literal translation from Sanskrit is "holding to truth." Satyagraha is the famous nonviolence movement led by Gandhi.
44-3: False and alas205! malicious206 reports were recently circulated that Miss Slade has severed207 all her ties with Gandhi and forsaken208 her vows. Miss Slade, the Mahatma's Satyagraha disciple for twenty years, issued a signed statement to the United Press, dated Dec. 29, 1945, in which she explained that a series of baseless rumors209 arose after she had departed, with Gandhi's blessings210, for a small site in northeastern India near the Himalayas, for the purpose of founding there her now-flourishing Kisan Ashram (center for medical and agricultural aid to peasant farmers). Mahatma Gandhi plans to visit the new ashram during 1946.
44-4: Miss Slade reminded me of another distinguished211 Western woman, Miss Margaret Woodrow Wilson, eldest212 daughter of America's great president. I met her in New York; she was intensely interested in India. Later she went to Pondicherry, where she spent the last five years of her life, happily pursuing a path of discipline at the feet of Sri Aurobindo Ghosh. This sage170 never speaks; he silently greets his disciples on three annual occasions only.
44-5: For years in America I had been observing periods of silence, to the consternation213 of callers and secretaries.
44-6: Harmlessness; nonviolence; the foundation rock of Gandhi's creed. He was born into a family of strict Jains, who revere128 ahimsa as the root-virtue. Jainism, a sect125 of Hinduism, was founded in the 6th century B.C. by Mahavira, a contemporary of Buddha214. Mahavira means "great hero"; may he look down the centuries on his heroic son Gandhi!
44-7: Hindi is the lingua franca for the whole of India. An Indo- Aryan language based largely on Sanskrit roots, Hindi is the chief vernacular215 of northern India. The main dialect of Western Hindi is Hindustani, written both in the Devanagari (Sanskrit) characters and in Arabic characters. Its subdialect, Urdu, is spoken by Moslems.
44-8: Gandhi has described his life with a devastating216 candor in The Story Of My Experiments With Truth (Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press, 1927- 29, 2 vol.) This autobiography217 has been summarized in Mahatma Gandhi, His Own Story, edited by C. F. Andrews, with an introduction by John Haynes Holmes (New York: Macmillan Co., 1930).
Many autobiographies218 replete219 with famous names and colorful events are almost completely silent on any phase of inner analysis or development. One lays down each of these books with a certain dissatisfaction, as though saying: "Here is a man who knew many notable persons, but who never knew himself." This reaction is impossible with Gandhi's autobiography; he exposes his faults and subterfuges220 with an impersonal221 devotion to truth rare in annals of any age.
44-9: Kasturabai Gandhi died in imprisonment222 at Poona on February 22, 1944. The usually unemotional Gandhi wept silently. Shortly after her admirers had suggested a Memorial Fund in her honor, 125 lacs of rupees (nearly four million dollars) poured in from all over India. Gandhi has arranged that the fund be used for village welfare work among women and children. He reports his activities in his English weekly, Harijan.
44-10: I sent a shipment to Wardha, soon after my return to America. The plants, alas! died on the way, unable to withstand the rigors223 of the long ocean transportation.
44-11: Thoreau, Ruskin, and Mazzini are three other Western writers whose sociological views Gandhi has studied carefully.
44-13: The unique feature of Hinduism among the world religions is that it derives224 not from a single great founder225 but from the impersonal Vedic scriptures. Hinduism thus gives scope for worshipful incorporation226 into its fold of prophets of all ages and all lands. The Vedic scriptures regulate not only devotional practices but all important social customs, in an effort to bring man's every action into harmony with divine law.
44-14: A comprehensive Sanskrit word for law; conformity227 to law or natural righteousness; duty as inherent in the circumstances in which a man finds himself at any given time. The scriptures define dharma as "the natural universal laws whose observance enables man to save himself from degradation228 and suffering."
44-15: Matthew 7:21.
44-16: Matthew 26:52.
44-17: "Let not a man glory in this, that he love his country; Let him rather glory in this, that he love his kind."-Persian Proverb.
44-18: "Then came Peter to him and said, Lord, how oft shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? till seven times? Jesus saith unto him, I say not unto thee, Until seven times: but, Until seventy times seven."-Matthew 18:21-22.
44-19: Charles P. Steinmetz, the great electrical engineer, was once asked by Mr. Roger W. Babson: "What line of research will see the greatest development during the next fifty years?" "I think the greatest discovery will be made along spiritual lines," Steinmetz replied. "Here is a force which history clearly teaches has been the greatest power in the development of men. Yet we have merely been playing with it and have never seriously studied it as we have the physical forces. Someday people will learn that material things do not bring happiness and are of little use in making men and women creative and powerful. Then the scientists of the world will turn their laboratories over to the study of God and prayer and the spiritual forces which as yet have hardly been scratched. When this day comes, the world will see more advancement229 in one generation than it has seen in the past four."
44-20: That is, resist not evil with evil. (Matthew 5:38-39)
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收听单词发音
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1
consigning
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| v.把…置于（令人不快的境地）( consign的现在分词 )；把…托付给；把…托人代售；丟弃 | |
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scrap
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| n.碎片；废料；v.废弃，报废 | |
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scribbled
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| v.潦草的书写( scribble的过去式和过去分词 )；乱画；草草地写；匆匆记下 | |
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inscribed
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| v.写，刻( inscribe的过去式和过去分词 )；内接 | |
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sincerity
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| n.真诚，诚意；真实 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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attire
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| v.穿衣，装扮[同]array；n.衣着；盛装 | |
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orchards
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| （通常指围起来的）果园( orchard的名词复数 ) | |
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revolving
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| adj.旋转的，轮转式的；循环的v.（使）旋转( revolve的现在分词 )；细想 | |
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12
whitewashed
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| 粉饰，美化，掩饰( whitewash的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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13
faucet
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| n.水龙头 | |
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chisels
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| n.凿子，錾子( chisel的名词复数 )；口凿 | |
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vow
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| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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18
celibacy
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| n.独身(主义) | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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20
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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arcade
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| n.拱廊；(一侧或两侧有商店的)通道 | |
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22
squatting
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的现在分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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23
brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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diced
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| v.将…切成小方块，切成丁( dice的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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25
beets
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| 甜菜( beet的名词复数 )； 甜菜根； （因愤怒、难堪或觉得热而）脸红 | |
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26
relish
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| n.滋味，享受，爱好，调味品；vt.加调味料，享受，品味；vi.有滋味 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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30
disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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disciples
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| n.信徒( disciple的名词复数 )；门徒；耶稣的信徒；（尤指）耶稣十二门徒之一 | |
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32
unawareness
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| 不知觉；不察觉；不意；不留神 | |
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33
reconstruction
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| n.重建，再现，复原 | |
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hygiene
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| n.健康法，卫生学 （a.hygienic） | |
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illiterate
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| adj.文盲的；无知的；n.文盲 | |
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gaily
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| adv.欢乐地，高兴地 | |
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37
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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38
Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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39
revival
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| n.复兴，复苏，（精力、活力等的）重振 | |
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40
repudiation
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| n.拒绝；否认；断绝关系；抛弃 | |
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41
machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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42
automobiles
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| n.汽车( automobile的名词复数 ) | |
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43
colossal
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| adj.异常的，庞大的 | |
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44
sanity
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| n.心智健全，神智正常，判断正确 | |
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45
appreciation
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| n.评价；欣赏；感谢；领会，理解；价格上涨 | |
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46
quaint
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| adj.古雅的，离奇有趣的，奇怪的 | |
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47
propped
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| 支撑，支持，维持( prop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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48
serenity
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| n.宁静，沉着，晴朗 | |
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49
enraptured
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| v.使狂喜( enrapture的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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50
unison
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| n.步调一致，行动一致 | |
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51
aspiration
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| n.志向，志趣抱负；渴望；(语)送气音；吸出 | |
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52
meditation
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| n.熟虑，（尤指宗教的）默想，沉思，（pl.）冥想录 | |
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53
labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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54
apportion
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| vt.（按比例或计划）分配 | |
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55
descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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56
bestow
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| v.把…赠与，把…授予；花费 | |
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57
bestowing
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| 砖窑中砖堆上层已烧透的砖 | |
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58
blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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59
imperturbable
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| adj.镇静的 | |
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60
enjoined
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| v.命令( enjoin的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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61
apotheosis
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| n.神圣之理想；美化；颂扬 | |
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62
symbolizes
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| v.象征，作为…的象征( symbolize的第三人称单数 ) | |
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63
realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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64
instinctively
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| adv.本能地 | |
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65
corrode
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| v.使腐蚀，侵蚀，破害；v.腐蚀，被侵蚀 | |
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66
liberating
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| 解放，释放( liberate的现在分词 ) | |
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67
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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68
succor
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| n.援助，帮助；v.给予帮助 | |
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69
countless
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| adj.无数的，多得不计其数的 | |
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70
solicitudes
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| n.关心，挂念，渴望( solicitude的名词复数 ) | |
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71
rejuvenating
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| 使变得年轻，使恢复活力( rejuvenate的现在分词 ) | |
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72
prodigal
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| adj.浪费的，挥霍的，放荡的 | |
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73
evolutionary
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| adj.进化的；演化的，演变的；[生]进化论的 | |
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74
intensity
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| n.强烈，剧烈；强度；烈度 | |
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75
stark
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| adj.荒凉的；严酷的；完全的；adv.完全地 | |
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76
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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77
implicit
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| a.暗示的，含蓄的，不明晰的，绝对的 | |
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78
renouncing
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的现在分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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79
dispersed
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| adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的 | |
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80
poke
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| n.刺，戳，袋；vt.拨开，刺，戳；vi.戳，刺，捅，搜索，伸出，行动散慢 | |
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81
inadequate
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| adj.(for,to)不充足的，不适当的 | |
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82
renounce
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| v.放弃；拒绝承认，宣布与…断绝关系 | |
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83
laments
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| n.悲恸，哀歌，挽歌( lament的名词复数 )v.（为…）哀悼，痛哭，悲伤( lament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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84
err
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| vi.犯错误，出差错 | |
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85
renounced
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| v.声明放弃( renounce的过去式和过去分词 )；宣布放弃；宣布与…决裂；宣布摒弃 | |
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86
tangible
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| adj.有形的，可触摸的，确凿的，实际的 | |
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87
motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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88
merging
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| 合并（分类） | |
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89
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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90
tranquil
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| adj. 安静的, 宁静的, 稳定的, 不变的 | |
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91
gambling
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| n.赌博；投机 | |
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92
racing
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| n.竞赛，赛马；adj.竞赛用的，赛马用的 | |
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93
bribes
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| n.贿赂( bribe的名词复数 )；向（某人）行贿，贿赂v.贿赂( bribe的第三人称单数 )；向（某人）行贿，贿赂 | |
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94
tolerance
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| n.宽容；容忍，忍受；耐药力；公差 | |
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95
grumbled
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| 抱怨( grumble的过去式和过去分词 )； 发牢骚； 咕哝； 发哼声 | |
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96
courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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97
beset
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| v.镶嵌；困扰，包围 | |
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treasurer
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| n.司库，财务主管 | |
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jewelry
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| n.（jewllery）（总称）珠宝 | |
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100
bracelets
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| n.手镯，臂镯( bracelet的名词复数 ) | |
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101
disbursement
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| n.支付，付款 | |
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102
auditing
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| n.审计，查账，决算 | |
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103
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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104
discrepancy
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| n.不同；不符；差异；矛盾 | |
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105
outraged
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| a.震惊的，义愤填膺的 | |
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106
gasp
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| n.喘息，气喘；v.喘息；气吁吁他说 | |
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107
banter
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| n.嘲弄，戏谑；v.取笑，逗弄，开玩笑 | |
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108
insignificant
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| adj.无关紧要的，可忽略的，无意义的 | |
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109
rebuked
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| 责难或指责( rebuke的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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110
humbly
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| adv. 恭顺地，谦卑地 | |
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111
squatted
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| v.像动物一样蹲下( squat的过去式和过去分词 )；非法擅自占用（土地或房屋）；为获得其所有权；而占用某片公共用地。 | |
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112
killing
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| n.巨额利润；突然赚大钱，发大财 | |
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113
vibrations
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| n.摆动( vibration的名词复数 )；震动；感受；（偏离平衡位置的）一次性往复振动 | |
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114
candor
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| n.坦白，率真 | |
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115
chuckle
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| vi.／n.轻声笑，咯咯笑 | |
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116
celibate
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| adj.独身的，独身主义的；n.独身者 | |
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117
vegetarian
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| n.素食者；adj.素食的 | |
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118
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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119
groves
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| 树丛，小树林( grove的名词复数 ) | |
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120
countenance
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| n.脸色，面容；面部表情；vt.支持，赞同 | |
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121
malnutrition
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| n.营养不良 | |
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122
sperm
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| n.精子，精液 | |
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123
inquiry
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| n.打听，询问，调查，查问 | |
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124
visualized
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| 直观的，直视的 | |
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125
sect
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| n.派别，宗教，学派，派系 | |
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126
rippling
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| 起涟漪的，潺潺流水般声音的 | |
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127
initiated
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| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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128
revere
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| vt.尊崇，崇敬，敬畏 | |
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129
reverently
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| adv.虔诚地 | |
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130
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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131
scripture
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| n.经文，圣书，手稿；Scripture:(常用复数)《圣经》，《圣经》中的一段 | |
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132
testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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133
logic
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| n.逻辑(学)；逻辑性 | |
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134
salvation
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| n.（尤指基督）救世，超度，拯救，解困 | |
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135
solace
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| n.安慰；v.使快乐；vt.安慰(物)，缓和 | |
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136
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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137
aspire
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| vi.(to，after)渴望，追求，有志于 | |
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138
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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139
thronged
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| v.成群，挤满( throng的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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140
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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141
precariously
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| adv.不安全地；危险地；碰机会地；不稳定地 | |
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142
redress
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| n.赔偿，救济，矫正；v.纠正，匡正，革除 | |
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143
grievances
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| n.委屈( grievance的名词复数 )；苦衷；不满；牢骚 | |
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144
injustice
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| n.非正义，不公正，不公平，侵犯（别人的）权利 | |
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145
injustices
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| 不公平( injustice的名词复数 )； 非正义； 待…不公正； 冤枉 | |
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146
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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147
intelligible
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| adj.可理解的，明白易懂的，清楚的 | |
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148
demonstration
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| n.表明，示范，论证，示威 | |
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149
penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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150
strenuous
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| adj.奋发的，使劲的；紧张的；热烈的，狂热的 | |
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151
coordination
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| n.协调，协作 | |
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152
determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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153
infinitely
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| adv.无限地，无穷地 | |
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154
brute
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| n.野兽，兽性 | |
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155
swelled
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| 增强( swell的过去式和过去分词 )； 肿胀； （使）凸出； 充满（激情） | |
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156
brotherhood
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| n.兄弟般的关系，手中情谊 | |
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157
banish
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| vt.放逐，驱逐；消除，排除 | |
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158
chaos
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| n.混乱，无秩序 | |
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159
pestilence
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| n.瘟疫 | |
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160
macabre
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| adj.骇人的，可怖的 | |
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161
annihilator
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| n.歼灭者，消灭者；灭火器；零化子 | |
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162
mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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163
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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164
epics
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| n.叙事诗( epic的名词复数 )；壮举；惊人之举；史诗般的电影（或书籍） | |
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165
slaughtered
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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166
retaliate
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| v.报复，反击 | |
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167
bloody
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| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
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168
majestic
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| adj.雄伟的，壮丽的，庄严的，威严的，崇高的 | |
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169
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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170
sage
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| n.圣人，哲人；adj.贤明的，明智的 | |
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171
indignities
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| n.侮辱，轻蔑( indignity的名词复数 ) | |
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172
enlisting
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| v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的现在分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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173
portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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174
concessions
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| n.（尤指由政府或雇主给予的）特许权( concession的名词复数 )；承认；减价；（在某地的）特许经营权 | |
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175
eradication
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| n.根除 | |
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176
applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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177
arena
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| n.竞技场，运动场所；竞争场所，舞台 | |
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178
feuds
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| n.长期不和，世仇( feud的名词复数 ) | |
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179
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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180
pariah
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| n.被社会抛弃者 | |
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181
pariahs
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| n.被社会遗弃者( pariah的名词复数 )；贱民 | |
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182
thereby
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| adv.因此，从而 | |
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183
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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184
disillusioned
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| a.不再抱幻想的，大失所望的，幻想破灭的 | |
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185
creed
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| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
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186
delude
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| vt.欺骗；哄骗 | |
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187
evoke
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| vt.唤起，引起，使人想起 | |
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188
frail
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| adj.身体虚弱的；易损坏的 | |
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189
retrace
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| v.折回；追溯，探源 | |
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190
bankruptcy
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| n.破产；无偿付能力 | |
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191
domain
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| n.(活动等)领域，范围；领地，势力范围 | |
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192
militia
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| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
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193
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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194
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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195
sterile
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| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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196
misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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197
patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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198
impractical
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| adj.不现实的，不实用的，不切实际的 | |
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199
smite
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| v.重击；彻底击败；n.打；尝试；一点儿 | |
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200
epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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201
timing
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| n.时间安排，时间选择 | |
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202
desolated
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| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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203
devastated
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| v.彻底破坏( devastate的过去式和过去分词)；摧毁；毁灭；在感情上（精神上、财务上等）压垮adj.毁坏的；极为震惊的 | |
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204
granite
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| adj.花岗岩，花岗石 | |
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205
alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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206
malicious
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| adj.有恶意的，心怀恶意的 | |
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207
severed
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| v.切断，断绝( sever的过去式和过去分词 )；断，裂 | |
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208
Forsaken
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| adj. 被遗忘的, 被抛弃的 动词forsake的过去分词 | |
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209
rumors
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| n.传闻( rumor的名词复数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷v.传闻( rumor的第三人称单数 )；[古]名誉；咕哝；[古]喧嚷 | |
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210
blessings
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| n.（上帝的）祝福( blessing的名词复数 )；好事；福分；因祸得福 | |
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211
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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212
eldest
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| adj.最年长的，最年老的 | |
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213
consternation
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| n.大为吃惊，惊骇 | |
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214
Buddha
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| n.佛；佛像；佛陀 | |
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215
vernacular
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| adj.地方的，用地方语写成的；n.白话；行话；本国语；动植物的俗名 | |
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216
devastating
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| adj.毁灭性的，令人震惊的，强有力的 | |
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217
autobiography
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| n.自传 | |
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218
autobiographies
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| n.自传( autobiography的名词复数 )；自传文学 | |
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219
replete
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| adj.饱满的，塞满的；n.贮蜜蚁 | |
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220
subterfuges
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| n.（用说谎或欺骗以逃脱责备、困难等的）花招，遁词( subterfuge的名词复数 ) | |
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221
impersonal
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| adj.无个人感情的，与个人无关的，非人称的 | |
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222
imprisonment
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| n.关押，监禁，坐牢 | |
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223
rigors
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| 严格( rigor的名词复数 )； 严酷； 严密； （由惊吓或中毒等导致的身体）僵直 | |
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224
derives
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| v.得到( derive的第三人称单数 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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225
Founder
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| n.创始者，缔造者 | |
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226
incorporation
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| n.设立，合并，法人组织 | |
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227
conformity
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| n.一致，遵从，顺从 | |
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228
degradation
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| n.降级；低落；退化；陵削；降解；衰变 | |
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229
advancement
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| n.前进，促进，提升 | |
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