§ 2. The eighteenth century was soon distinguished6 by boundless7 activity of thought; and this thought was directed mainly to a great work of destruction. Europe had outgrown8 the ideas of the Middle Age, and the framework of Society, which the Middle Age had bequeathed, had waxed old and was ready to vanish as soon as any strong force could be found to push it out of the way. As Matthew Arnold has described it—
“When blood and warmth were fled;
“And still it spake it’s wonted speech—
“But every word was dead.”
Here then there was need of some destructive power that should remove and burn up much that had become mere10 obstacle and incumbrance. This power was found in the writings which appeared in France about the middle of the century; and among the authors of them none spoke11 with more effect than one who differed from all the rest, a vagabond without family ties or social position of any kind, with no literary training, with little knowledge and in conduct at least, with no morals. The writings of Rousseau and the results produced by them are among the strangest things in history; and especially in matters of education it is more than doubtful if the wise man of the world Montaigne, the Christian12 philanthropist Comenius, or that “slave of truth and reason” the philosopher Locke, had half as much influence as this depraved serving man.
§ 3. The work by which Rousseau became famous was[241] a prize essay in which he maintained that civilization, the arts and all human institutions were from first to last pernicious in their effects, and that no happiness was possible for the human race without giving them all up and returning to what he called the state of Nature. He glorified13 the “noble savage14.” If man had brought himself to a state of misery15 bordering on despair by following his own many inventions, take away all these inventions and you will have man in his proper condition. The argument seems something of this kind: Man was once happy: Man is now miserable16: undo17 everything that has been done and Man will be happy again.
§ 4. This principle of a so-called “natural” state existing before man’s many inventions, Rousseau applied18 boldly to education, and he deduced this general rule: “Do precisely19 the opposite to what is usually done, and you will have hit on the right plan.” Not reform but revolution was his advice. He took the ordinary school teaching and held it up to ridicule21, and certainly he did prove its absurdity22. And a most valuable service he thus rendered to teachers. Every employment while it makes us see some things clearly, also provides us with blinkers, so to speak, which prevent our seeing other things at all. The school teacher’s blinkers often prevent his seeing much that is plain enough to other people; and when a writer like Rousseau takes off our blinkers for us and makes us look about us, he does us a great deal of good. But we need more than this: if we have children entrusted23 to us we must do something with them, and Rousseau’s rule of doing the opposite to what is usual will not be found universally applicable. So we consult Rousseau again, and what is his advice?
§ 5. Rousseau would bring everything back to the[242] “natural” state, and unfortunately he never pauses to settle whether he means by this a state of ideal perfection, or of simply savagery24. The savage, he says, gets his education without any one’s troubling about it, and so he infers that all the trouble taken by the civilized25 is worse than thrown away. (Girardin’s Rousseau, ij., 85.) But he does not fall back on laisser faire. He urges on parents the duty of themselves attending to the bringing up of their children. “Point de mère, point d’enfant—no mother, no child,” says he; and he would have the father see to the training of the child whom the mother has suckled.
§ 6. Rousseau’s picture of family life is given us where few Englishmen are likely to find it, enveloped27 in the Nouvelle Hélo?se. Here we read how Julie always has her children with her, and while seeming to let them do as they like, conceals28 with the air of apparent carelessness the most vigilant29 observation. Possessed30 by the notion that there can be no intellectual education before the age of reason, she proclaims: “La fonction dont je suis chargée n’est pas d’élever mes fils, mais de les préparer pour être élevés: My business is not to educate my sons, but to prepare them for being educated.” (N. Hélo?se, 5th P., Lett. 3.)[120]
§ 7. There is much that is very pleasing in this picture of ideal family life; but when Rousseau comes formally to propound31 his ideas on education, he gives up family life to attain32 greater simplicity33. “Je m’en tiens à ce qui est plus simple,” says he: “What I stick to is the more simple.” He tries to state everything in its lowest terms, so to speak; and this method is excellent so long as he puts on one side[243] only what is accidental, and retains all the essentials of the problem. But his rage for simplicity sometimes carried him beyond this. There is an old Cambridge story of a problem introducing an elephant “whose weight may be neglected.” This is after the manner of Rousseau. In the bringing up of the model child, he “neglects” parents, brothers and sisters, young companions; and though he says that the needful qualities of a master may be expected only in “un homme de génie,” he hands over émile to a governor to live an isolated34 life in the country.
§ 8. This governor is to devote himself, for some years, entirely35 to imparting to his pupil these difficult arts—the art of being ignorant and of losing time. Till he is twelve years old, émile is to have no direct instruction whatever. “At that age he shall not know what a book is,” says Rousseau; though elsewhere we are told that he will learn to read of his own accord by the time he is ten, if no attempt is made to teach him. He is to be under no restraint, and is to do nothing but what he sees to be useful.
§ 9. Freedom from restraint is, however, to be apparent, not real. As in ordinary education the child employs all its faculties36 in duping the master, so in education “according to Nature” the master is to devote himself to duping the child. “Let him always be his own master in appearance, and do you take care to be so in reality. There is no subjection so complete as that which preserves the appearance of liberty; it is by this means even the will is led captive.”
§ 10. “The most critical interval37 of human nature is that between the hour of our birth and twelve years of age. This is the time wherein vice20 and error take root without our being possessed of any instrument to destroy them.”[244] (ém. ij., 79.) Throughout this season, the governor is to be at work training the pupil in the art of being ignorant and losing time. “The first education should be purely38 negative. It consists by no means in teaching virtue39 or truth, but in securing the heart from vice and the intellect from error. If you could do nothing and let nothing be done, if you could bring on your pupil healthy and strong to the age of 12 without his being able to tell his right hand from his left, from your very first lessons the eyes of his understanding would open to reason. Being without prejudices and without habits he would have nothing in him to thwart40 the effect of your care; and by beginning with doing nothing you would have made an educational prodigy41.”[121]
“Exercise his body, his organs, his senses, his powers; but keep his mind passive as long as possible. Mistrust all his sentiments formed before the judgment42 which determines their value. Restrain, avoid all foreign impressions, and to prevent the birth of evil be in no hurry to cause good; for good is good only in the light of reason. Look on all delays as so many advantages: it is a great gain to advance towards the goal without loss: let childhood ripen43 in children. In short, whatever lesson they may need, be[245] sure not to give it them to-day if you can safely put it off till to-morrow.”[122]
“Do not, then, alarm yourself much about this apparent idleness. What would you say of the man, who, in order to make the most of life, should determine never to go to sleep? You would say, The man is mad: he is not enjoying the time; he is depriving himself of it: to avoid sleep he is hurrying towards death. Consider, then, that it is the same here, and that childhood is the sleep of reason.”[123]
§ 11. We have now reached the climax44 (or shall we say the nadir45?) in negation46. Rousseau has given the coup47 de grace to the ideal of the Renascence. Comenius was the first to take a comprehensive view of the educator’s task and to connect it with man’s nature and destiny; but he could not get clear from an over-estimate of the importance of knowledge. According to his ideal, man should know all things; so in practice he thought too much of imparting knowledge. Then came Locke and treated the imparting[246] of knowledge as of trifling48 importance when compared with the formation of character; but he too in practice hardly went so far as this principle might have led him. He was much under the influence of social distinctions, and could not help thinking of what it was necessary for a gentleman to know. So that Rousseau was the very first to shake himself entirely free from the notion which the Renascence had handed down that man was mainly a learning animal. Rousseau has the courage to deny this in the most emphatic49 manner possible, and to say: “For the first 12 years the educator must teach the child nothing.”
§ 12. In this reaction against the Renascence Rousseau puts the truth in the form of such a violent paradox50 that we start back in terror. But it was perhaps necessary thus to sweep away the ordinary schoolroom rubbish before the true nature of the educator’s task could be fairly considered. The rubbish having been cleared away what was to take its place? No longer having his mind engrossed51 by the knowledge he wished to communicate, the educator had now an eye for something else not less worthy52 of his attention, viz., the child itself. Rousseau was the first to base education entirely on a study of the child to be educated; and by doing this he became, as I believe, one of the greatest of educational Reformers.
§ 13. It was, however, purely as a thinker, or rather as a voice giving expression to the general discontent that Rousseau became such a tremendous force in Europe. He has indeed often been called the father of the first French Revolution which he did not live to see. But, as Macaulay has well said, a good deal besides eloquent53 writing is needed to cause such a convulsion; and we can no more attribute the French Revolution to the writings of Rousseau than we[247] can attribute the shock of an explosion of gunpowder54 to the lucifer match without which it might never have happened (v. Macaulay’s Barrère). Rousseau did in the world of ideas what the French Revolutionists afterwards did in the world of politics; he made a clean sweep and endeavoured to start afresh.
§ 14. I have already said that as regards education I think his labours in destruction were of very great value. But what shall we say of his efforts at construction? There would not be the least difficulty in showing that most of his proposals are impracticable. It is no more “natural” to treat as a typical case a child brought up in solitude55 than it would be to write a treatise56 on the rearing of a bee cut off from the hive.[124] Rousseau requires impossibilities, e.g., he postulates57 that the child is never to be brought into contact with anyone who might set a bad example. Modern science has shown us that the young are liable to take diseases from impurities58 in the air they breathe: but as yet no one has proposed that all children should be kept at an elevation59 of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Yet the advice would be about as practicable as the advice of Rousseau. A method which always starts with paradox and not infrequently ends with platitude60 might seem to have little in its favour; and Rousseau has had far less influence since (in the words of Herman Merivale) “he was dethroned with the fall of his extravagant61 child, the [First] Republic.” No doubt the great exponent62 of English[248] opinion was right in calling Rousseau “the most un-English stranger who ever landed on our shores” (Times, 29 Aug., 1873); and the torch of his eloquence63 will never cause a conflagration64, still less an explosion, here. His disregard for “appearances”—or rather his evident purpose of making an impression by defying “appearances” and saying just the opposite of what is expected, is simply distressing65 to us. But there is no denying Rousseau’s genius. His was one of the original voices that go on sounding and awakening66 echoes in all lands. Willingly or unwillingly67, at first hand or from imperfect echoes, everyone who studies education must study Rousseau.
§ 15. As specimens68 of Rousseau’s teaching I will give a few characteristic passages from the émile.
“Everything is good as it leaves the hands of the Creator: everything degenerates69 in the hands of man.”[125] These are the first words of the “émile,” and the key-note of Rousseau’s philosophy.
§ 16. “We are born weak, we have need of strength; we are born destitute70 of everything, we have need of assistance; we are born stupid, we have need of understanding. All that we have not at our birth, and which we require when grown up, is bestowed71 on us by education. This education we receive from nature, from men, or from things. The internal development of our organs and faculties is the education of nature: the use we are taught to make of that development is the education given us by men; and in the acquisitions made by our own experience on the objects that surround us, consists our education[249] from things.”[126] “Since the concurrence72 of these three kinds of education is necessary to their perfection, it is by that one which is entirely independent of us, we must regulate the two others.”[127]
§ 17. Now “to live is not merely to breathe; it is to act, it is to make use of our organs, our senses, our faculties, and of all those parts of ourselves which give us the feeling of our existence. The man who has lived most, is not he who has counted the greatest number of years, but he who has most thoroughly73 felt life.”[128]
§ 18. The aim of education, then, must be complete living.
But ordinary education, instead of seeking to develop the life of the child, sacrifices childhood to the acquirement of knowledge, or rather the semblance74 of knowledge, which it is thought will prove useful to the youth or the man.[250] Rousseau’s great merit lies in his having exposed this fundamental error. He says, very truly, “We do not understand childhood, and pursuing false ideas of it our every step takes us further astray. The wisest among us fix upon what it concerns men to know without ever considering what children are capable of learning. They always expect to find the man in the child without thinking of what the child is before it is a man. And this is the study to which I have especially devoted75 myself, in order that should my entire method be false and visionary, my observations might always turn to account. I may not have seen aright what ought to be done: but I believe I have seen aright the subject on which we have to act. Begin then by studying your pupils better, for most certainly you do not understand them.”[129] “Nature wills that children should be children before they are men. If we seek to pervert76 this order we shall produce forward fruits without ripeness or flavour, and tho’ not ripe, soon rotten: we shall have young savans and old children. Childhood has ways of seeing, thinking, feeling peculiar77 to itself; nothing is more absurd than to wish to substitute ours in their place.”[130] “We[251] never know how to put ourselves in the place of children; we do not enter into their ideas, we attribute to them our own; and following always our own train of thought, even with syllogisms we manage to fill their heads with nothing but extravagance and error.”[131] “I wish some discreet78 person would give us a treatise on the art of observing children—an art which would be of immense value to us, but of which fathers and schoolmasters have not as yet learnt the very first rudiments79.”[132]
§ 19. In these passages, Rousseau strikes the key-note of true education. The first thing necessary for us is to see aright the subject on which we have to act. Unfortunately, however, this subject has often been the subject most neglected in the schoolroom. Children have been treated as if they were made for their school books, not their school books for them. As education has been thought of as learning, childhood has been treated as unimportant, a necessary stage in existence no doubt, but far more troublesome and hardly more interesting than the state of the[252] chrysalis. If some forms of words, tables, declensions, county towns, and the like can be drummed into children, this is, say educators of the old school, a clear gain. For the rest nothing can be done with them except teaching them to read, write, and say the multiplication80 table.
But since the publication of the émile, there has been in the world a very different view of education. According to this view, the importance of childhood is not to be measured by the amount of our knowledge, or even the number of our words, we can force it to remember. According to this view, in dealing81 with children we must not think of our knowledge or of our notions at all. We must think not of our own minds, but of the minds of the little ones.[133]
§ 20. The absurd results in which the opposite course has ended, Rousseau exposes with great severity. “All the studies demanded from the poor unfortunates lead to such things as are entirely beyond the range of their ideas, so you may judge what amount of attention they can give to them. Schoolmasters who make a great display of the instruction they give their pupils are paid to differ from me; but we see from what they do that they are entirely of my opinion. For what do they really teach? Words, words, for ever words. Among the various knowledges which they boast of giving, they are careful not to include such as would be of use; because these would involve a knowledge of things, and there they would be sure to fail; but they choose subjects that seem to be known when the terms are known[253] such as heraldry, geography, chronology, languages and the like; all of them studies so foreign to a man, and still more to a child, that it is a great chance if anything of the whole lot ever proves useful to him on a single occasion in his whole life.”[134] “Whatever the study may be, without the idea of the things represented the signs representing them go for nothing. And yet the child is always kept to these signs without our being able to make him comprehend any of the things they represent.”[135] What does a child understand by “the globe”? An old geography book says candidly82, that it is a round thing made of plaster; and this is the only notion children have of it. What a fearful waste, and worse than waste, it is to make them learn the signs without the things, when if they ever learn the things, they must at the same time acquire the signs! (Conf. Ruskin supra p. 159, note.) “No! if Nature gives to the child’s[254] brain this pliability83 which makes it capable of receiving impressions of every kind, this is not that we may engrave84 on it the names of kings, dates, the technical words of heraldry, of astronomy, of geography, and all those words meaningless at his age and useless at any age, with which we oppress his sad and sterile85 childhood; but that all the ideas which he can conceive and which are useful to him, all those which relate to his happiness and will one day make his duty plain to him, may trace themselves there in characters never to be effaced86, and may assist him in conducting himself through life in a manner appropriate to his nature and his faculties.”[136]
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§ 21. With Rousseau, as afterwards with Froebel, education was a kind of “child-gardening.” “Plants are developed by cultivation,” says he, “men by education: On fa?onne les plantes par26 la culture, et les hommes par l’éducation” (ém. j., 6). The governor, who is the child-gardener, is to aim at three things: first, he is to shield the child from all corrupting87 influences; second, he is to devote himself to developing in the child a healthy and strong body in which the senses are to be rendered acute by exercise; third, he is, by practice not precept88, to cultivate the child’s sense of duty.
§ 22. In his study of children Rousseau fixed89 on their never-resting activity. “The failing energy concentrates itself in the heart of the old man; in the heart of the child energy is overflowing90 and spreads outwards91; he feels in him life enough to animate92 all his surroundings. Whether he makes or mars it is all one to him: it is enough that he has changed the state of things, and every change is an action. If he seems by preference to destroy, this is not from mischief93; but the act of construction is always slow, and the act of destruction being quicker is more suited to his vivacity94.”[137]
One of the first requisites95 in the care of the young is[256] then to provide for the expansion of their activity. All restraints such as swaddling clothes for infants and “school” and “lessons” for children are to be entirely done away with.[138] Literary instruction must not be thought of. “There must be no other book than the world,” says Rousseau, “no other instruction than facts. The child who reads does not think, he does nothing but read, he gets no instruction; he learns words: Point d’autre livre que le monde, point d’autre instruction que les faits. L’enfant qui lit ne pense pas, il ne fait que lire; il ne s’instruit pas, il apprend les mots.” (ém. iij., 181.)[139]
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§ 23. If it be objected that, according to Rousseau’s plan, there would be a neglect of memory, he replies: “Without the study of books the kind of memory that a child should have will not remain inactive; all he sees, all he hears, strikes him, and he remembers it; he keeps a record in himself of people’s actions and people’s talk; and all around him makes the book by which without thinking of it he is constantly enriching his memory against the time that his judgment may benefit by it: Sans étudier dans les livres, l’espèce de mémoire que peut avoir un enfant ne reste pas pour cela oisive; tout96 ce qu’il voit, tout ce qu’il entend le frappe, et il s’en souvient; il tient registre en lui-même des actions, des discours des hommes; et tout ce qui l’environne est le livre, dans lequel, sans y songer, il enrichit continuellement sa mémoire, en attendant que son jugement puisse en profiter.” (ém. ij., 106.) We should be most careful not to commit to our memory anything we do not understand, for if we do, we can never tell what part of our stores really belong to us. (ém. iij., 236.)
§ 24. On the positive side the most striking part of Rousseau’s advice relates to the training of the senses. “The first faculties which become strong in us,” says he, “are our senses. These then are the first that should be cultivated; they are in fact the only faculties we forget or[258] at least those which we neglect most completely.” We find that the young child “wants to touch and handle everything. By no means check this restlessness; it points to a very necessary apprenticeship97. Thus it is that the child gets to be conscious of the hotness or coldness, the hardness or softness, the heaviness or lightness of bodies, to judge of their size and shape and all their sensible properties by looking, feeling, listening, especially by comparing sight and touch, and combining the sensations of the eye with those of the fingers.”[140] “See a cat enter a room for the first time; she examines round and stares and sniffs98 about without a moment’s rest, she is satisfied with nothing before she has tried it and made it out. This is just what a child does when he begins to walk, and enters, so to say, the chamber99 of the world. The only difference is that to the sight which is common to the child and the cat the first joins in his observations the hands which nature has given him, and the other animal that subtle sense of smell which has been bestowed upon her. It is this tendency, according as it is well cultivated or the reverse, that makes children either sharp or dull, active or slow, giddy or thoughtful.
“The first natural movements of the child being then to measure himself with his surroundings and to test in everything he sees all its sensible properties which may concern him, his first study is a kind of experimental[259] physics relating to his own preservation100; and from this we divert him to speculative101 studies before he feels himself at home here below. So long as his delicate and flexible organs can adjust themselves to the bodies on which they ought to act, so long as his senses as yet uncorrupted are free from illusion, this is the time to exercise them all in their proper functions; this is the time to learn to understand the sensuous102 relations which things have with us. As everything that enters the mind finds its way through the senses, the first reason of a human being is a reason of sensations; this it is which forms the basis of the intellectual reason; our first masters in philosophy are our feet, our hands, our eyes. Substituting books for all this is not teaching us to reason, but simply to use the reason of other people; it teaches us to take a great deal on trust and never to know anything.
“In order to practise an art we must begin by getting the proper implements103; and that we may have good use of these implements they must be made strong enough to stand wear and tear. That we may learn to think we must then exercise our members, our senses, our organs, as these are the implements of our intelligence; and that we may make the most of these implements the body which supplies them must be strong and healthy. We see then that far from man’s true reason forming itself independently of his body, it is the sound constitution of the body that makes the operations of the mind easy and certain.”[141]
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§ 25. Rousseau does not confine himself to advising that the senses should be cultivated; he also gives some hints of the way in which they should be cultivated, and many modern experiments, such as “object lessons” and the use of actual weights and measures, may be directly traced to him. “As soon as a child begins to distinguish objects, a proper choice should be made in those which are presented to him.” Elsewhere he says, “To exercise the senses is not simply to make use of them; it is to learn to judge aright by means of them; it is to learn, so to say, to perceive; for we can only touch and see and hear according as we have learnt how. There is a kind of exercise perfectly104 natural and mechanical which serves to make the body strong without giving anything for the judgment to lay hold of: swimming, running, jumping, whip-top, stone throwing; all this is capital; but have we nothing but arms and legs? have we not also eyes and ears? and are these organs not needed in our use of the others? Do not then merely exercise the strength but exercise all the senses[261] which direct it; get all you can out of each of them, and then check the impressions of one by the impressions of another. Measure, reckon, weigh, compare.”[142]
§ 26. Two subjects there were in which émile was to receive instruction, viz.: music and drawing. Rousseau’s advice about drawing is well worth considering. He says: “Children who are great imitators all try to draw. I should wish my child to cultivate this art, not exactly for the art itself, but to make his eye correct and his hand supple:[262] Les enfants, grands imitateurs, essayent tous de dessiner: je voudrais que le mien105 cultivat cet art, non précisément pour l’art même, mais pour se rendre l’?il juste et la main flexible.” (ém. ij., 149). But émile is to be kept clear of the ordinary drawing-master who would put him to imitate imitations; and there is a striking contrast between Rousseau’s suggestions and those of the authorities at South Kensington. Technical skill he cares for less than the training of the eye; so émile is always to draw from the object, and, says Rousseau, “my intention is not so much that he should get to imitate the objects, as get to know them: mon intention n’est pas tant qu’il sache imiter les objets que les conna?tre.” (ém. ij., 150).
§ 27. Before we pass the age of twelve years, at which point, as someone says, Rousseau substitutes another émile for the one he has hitherto spoken of, let us look at his proposals for moral training. Rousseau is right, beyond question, in desiring that children should be treated as children. But what are children? What can they understand? What is the world in which they live? Is it the material world only, or is the moral world also open to them? (Girardin’s R., vol. ij., 136). On the subject of morals Rousseau seems to have admirable instincts,[143] but[263] no principles, and moral as he is “on instinct,” there is always some confusion in what he Says. At one time he asserts that “there is only one knowledge to give children, and that is a knowledge of duty: Il n’y a qu’une science à enseigner aux enfants: c’est celle des devoirs de l’homme.” (ém. j., 26). Elsewhere he says: “To know right from wrong, to be conscious of the reason of duty is not the business of a child: Conna?tre le bien et le mal, sentir la raison des devoirs de l’homme, n’est pas l’affaire d’un enfant.” (ém. ij., 75).[144] In another place he mounts his hobby that “the most sublime106 virtues107 are negative” (ém. ij., 95), and that about the best man who ever lived (till he found Friday?) was Robinson Crusoe. The outcome of all Rousseau’s teaching on this subject seems that we should in[264] every way develop the child’s animal or physical life, retard108 his intellectual life, and ignore his life as a spiritual and moral being.
§ 28. A variety of influences had combined, as they combine still, to draw attention away from the importance of physical training; and by placing the child’s bodily organs and senses as the first things to be thought of in education, Rousseau did much to save us from the bad tradition of the Renascence. But there were more things in heaven and earth than were dreamt of in his philosophy, and whatever Rousseau might say, émile could never be restrained from inquiring after them. Every boy will think; i.e., he will think for himself, however unable he may seem to think in the direction in which his instructors109 try to urge him. The wise elders who have charge of him must take this into account, and must endeavour to guide him into thinking modestly and thinking right. Then again, as soon as the child can speak, or before, the world of sensation becomes for him a world, not of sensations only, but also of sentiments, of sympathies, of affections, of consciousness of right and wrong, good and evil. All these feelings, it is true, may be affected110 by traditional prejudices. The air the child breathes may also contain much that is noxious111; but we have no more power to exclude the atmosphere of the moral world than of the physical. All we can do is to take thought for fresh air in both cases. As for Rousseau’s notion that we can withdraw the child from the moral atmosphere, we see in it nothing but a proof how little he understood the problems he professed112 to solve.[145]
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§ 29. Although the governor is to devote himself to a single child, Rousseau is careful to protest against over-direction. “You would stupify the child,” says he, “if you were constantly directing him, if you were always saying to him, ‘Come here! Go there! Stop! Do this! Don’t do that!’ If your head always directs his arms, his own head becomes useless to him.” (ém., ij., 114). Here we have a warning which should not be neglected by those who maintain the Lycées in France, and the ordinary private boarding-schools in England. In these schools a boy is hardly called upon to exercise his will all day long. He rises in the morning when he must; at meals he eats till he is obliged to stop; he is taken out for exercise like a horse; he has all his indoor work prescribed for him both as to time and quantity. In this kind of life he never has occasion to think or act for himself. He is therefore without self-reliance. So much care is taken to prevent his doing wrong, that he gets to think only of checks from without. He is therefore incapable113 of self-restraint. In the English public schools boys have much less supervision114 from their elders, and organise115 a great portion of their lives for themselves.[266] This proves a better preparation for life after the school age; and most public schoolmasters would agree with Rousseau that “the lessons the boys get from each other in the playground are a hundred times more useful to them than the lessons given them in school: les le?ons que les écoliers prennent entre eux dans la cour du collège leur sont cent fois plus utiles que tout ce qu’on leur dira jamais dans la classe.” (ém. ij., 123.)
§ 30. On questions put by children, Rousseau says: “The art of questioning is not so easy as it may be thought; it is rather the art of the master than of the pupil. We must have learnt a good deal of a thing to be able to ask what we do not know. The learned know and inquire, says an Indian proverb, but the ignorant know not what to inquire about.” And from this he infers that children learn less from asking than from being asked questions. (N. H., 5th p. 490.)
§ 31. At twelve years old émile is said to be fit for instruction. “Now is the time for labour, for instruction, for study; and observe that it is not I who arbitrarily make this choice; it is pointed1 out to us by Nature herself.”
§ 32. What novelties await us here? As we have seen Rousseau was determined116 to recommend nothing that would harmonise with ordinary educational practice; but even a genius, though he may abandon previous practice, cannot keep clear of previous thought, and Rousseau’s plan for instruction is obviously connected with the thoughts of Montaigne and of Locke. But while on the same lines with these great writers Rousseau goes beyond them and is both clearer and bolder than they are.
§ 33. Rousseau’s proposals for instruction have the following main features.
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1st. Instruction is to be no longer literary or linguistic117. The teaching about words is to disappear, and the young are not to learn by books or about books.
2nd. The subjects to be studied are to be mathematics and physical science.
3rd. The method to be adopted is not the didactic but the method of self-teaching.
4th. The hands are to be called into play as a means of learning.
§ 34. 1st. Till quite recently the only learning ever given in schools was book-learning, a fact to which the language of the people still bears witness: when a child does not profit by school instruction he is always said to be “no good at his book.” Now-a-days the tendency is to change the character of the schools so that they may become less and less mere “Ludi Literarii.” In this Rousseau seems to have been a century and more in advance of us; and yet we cannot credit him with any remarkable118 wisdom or insight about literature. He himself used books as a means of “collecting a store of ideas, true or false, but at any rate clear” (J. Morley’s Rousseau, j. chap. 3, p. 85), and he has recorded for us his opinion that “the sensible and interesting conversations of a young woman of merit are more proper to form a young man than all the pedantical philosophy of books” (Confessions, quoted by Morley j., 87). After this, whatever we may think of the merit of his suggestions we can sit at the Sage’s feet no longer.
§ 35. 2nd. Rousseau had himself little knowledge of mathematics and natural science, but he was strongly in favour of the “study of Nature”; and in his last years his devotion to botany became a passion. His curriculum for émile is in the air, but the chief thing is to get him to[268] attend to the phenomena119 of nature, and “to foster his curiosity by being in no hurry to satisfy it.”
§ 36. 3rd. About teaching and learning, there is one point on which we find a consensus120 of great authorities extending from the least learned of writers who was probably Rousseau to the most learned who was probably Friedrich August Wolf. In one form or other these assert that there is no true teaching but self-teaching.
Past a doubt the besetting121 weakness of teachers is “telling.” They can hardly resist the tendency to be didactic. They have the knowledge which they desire to find in their pupils, and they cannot help expressing it and endeavouring to pass it on to those who need it, “like wealthy men who care not how they give.” But true “teaching,” as Jacotot and his disciple122 Joseph Payne were never tired of testifying, is “causing to learn,” and it is seldom that “didactic” teaching has this effect. Rousseau saw this clearly, and clearly pointed out the danger of didacticism. As usual he by exaggeration laid himself open to an answer that seems to refute him, but in spite of this we feel that there is valuable truth underlying123 what he says. “I like not explanations given in long discourses,” says he; “young people pay little attention to them and retain little from them. The things themselves! The things themselves! I shall never repeat often enough that we attach too much importance to words: with our chattering124 education we make nothing but chatterers.”[146] Accordingly Rousseau lays down the rule that émile is not to learn[269] science but to invent it (qu’il n’apprenne pas la science; qu’il l’invente); and he even expects him to invent geometry. As émile is not supposed to be a young Pascal but only an ordinary boy with extraordinary physical development such a requirement is obviously absurd, and Herbart has reckoned it among Rousseau’s Hauptfehler (P?d. Schriften, ij., 242). The training prescribed is in fact the training of the intellectual athlete; and the trainer may put the body through its exercises much more easily than the mind. Of this the practical teacher is only too conscious, and he will accept Rousseau’s advice, if at all, only as “counsels of perfection.” Rousseau says: “émile, obliged to learn of himself, makes use of his own reason and not that of others; for to give no weight to opinion, none must be given to authority; and the more part of our mistakes come less from ourselves than from other people. From this constant exercise there should result a vigour125 of mind like that which the body gets from labour and fatigue126. Another advantage is that we advance only in proportion to our strength. The mind like the body carries that only which it can carry. When the understanding makes things its own before they are committed to memory, whatever it afterwards draws forth127 belongs to it; but if the memory is burdened with what the understanding knows nothing about we are in danger of bringing from it things which the understanding declines to acknowledge.”[147][270] Again he writes: “Beyond contradiction we get much more clear and certain notions of the things we learn thus of ourselves than of those we derive128 from other people’s instruction, and besides not accustoming129 our reason to bow as a slave before authority, we become more ingenious in finding connexions, in uniting ideas, and in inventing our implements, than when we take all that is given us and let our minds sink into indifference130, like the body of a man who always has his clothes put on for him, is waited on by his servants and drawn131 about by his horses till at length he loses the strength and use of his limbs. Boileau boasted of having taught Racine to find difficulty in rhyming. Among all the admirable methods of shortening the study of the sciences we might have need that some one should give us a way of learning them with effort.”[148]
§ 37. 4th. However highly we may value our gains from the use of books we must admit that in some ways the[271] use of books tends to the neglect of powers that should not be neglected. As Rousseau wished to see the young brought up without books he naturally looked to other means of learning, especially to learning by the eye and by the hand. Much is now said about using the hand for education, and many will agree with Rousseau: “If instead of making a child stick to his books I employ him in a workshop, his hands work to the advantage of his intellect: he becomes a philosopher while he thinks he is becoming simply an artisan: Au lieu de coller un enfant sur des livres, si je l’occupe dans un atelier, ses mains travaillent au profit de son esprit: il devient philosophe, et cro?t n’être qu’un ouvrier.” (ém. iij., 193).
§ 38. In these essays I have done what I could to shew the best that each reformer has left us. In Rousseau’s case I have been obliged to confine myself to his words. “We attach far too much importance to words,” said Rousseau, and yet it is by words and words only that Rousseau still lives; and for the sake of his words we forget his deeds. Of the émile Mr. Morley says: “It is one of the seminal132 books in the history of literature. It cleared away the accumulation of clogging133 prejudices and obscure inveterate134 usage which made education one of the dark formalistic arts; and it admitted floods of light and air into tightly-closed nurseries and schoolrooms” (Rousseau, ij., 248). In the region of thought it set us free from the Renascence; and it did more than this, it announced the true nature of the teacher’s calling, “Study the subject you have to act upon.” In these words we have the starting point of the “New Education.” From them the educator gets a fresh conception of his task. We grown people have received innumerable impressions which, forgotten as they are, have left their mark[272] behind in our way of looking at things; and as we advance in life these experiences and associations cluster around everything to which we direct our attention, till in the end the past seems to dominate the present and to us “nothing is but what is not.” But to the child the present with its revelations and the future which will be “something more, a bringer of new things,” are all engrossing135. It is our business as teachers to try to realize how the world looks from the child’s point of view. We may know a great many things and be ready to teach them, but we shall have little success unless we get another knowledge which we cannot teach and can learn only by patient observation, a knowledge of “the subject to be acted on,” of the mind of our pupils and what goes on there. When we set out on this path, which was first clearly pointed out by Rousseau, teaching becomes a new occupation with boundless possibilities and unceasing interest in it. Every teacher becomes a learner, for we have to study the minds of the young, their way of looking at things, their habits, their difficulties, their likes and dislikes, how they are stimulated136 to exertion137, how they are discouraged, how one mood succeeds another. What we need we may well devote a lifetime to acquiring; it is a knowledge of the human mind with the object of influencing it.
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1
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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cataracts
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| n.大瀑布( cataract的名词复数 )；白内障 | |
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smoothly
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| adv.平滑地，顺利地，流利地，流畅地 | |
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dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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boundless
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| adj.无限的；无边无际的；巨大的 | |
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outgrown
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| 长[发展] 得超过（某物）的范围( outgrow的过去分词 )； 长[发展]得不能再要（某物）； 长得比…快； 生长速度超过 | |
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breach
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| n.违反，不履行；破裂；vt.冲破，攻破 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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glorified
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| 美其名的，变荣耀的 | |
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savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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misery
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| n.痛苦，苦恼，苦难；悲惨的境遇，贫苦 | |
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miserable
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| adj.悲惨的，痛苦的；可怜的，糟糕的 | |
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undo
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| vt.解开，松开；取消，撤销 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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vice
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| n.坏事；恶习；[pl.]台钳，老虎钳；adj.副的 | |
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ridicule
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| v.讥讽，挖苦；n.嘲弄 | |
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absurdity
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| n.荒谬，愚蠢；谬论 | |
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entrusted
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| v.委托，托付( entrust的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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savagery
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| n.野性 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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enveloped
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| v.包围，笼罩，包住( envelop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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conceals
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| v.隐藏，隐瞒，遮住( conceal的第三人称单数 ) | |
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vigilant
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| adj.警觉的，警戒的，警惕的 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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propound
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| v.提出 | |
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attain
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| vt.达到，获得，完成 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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faculties
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| n.能力( faculty的名词复数 )；全体教职员；技巧；院 | |
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interval
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| n.间隔，间距；幕间休息，中场休息 | |
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purely
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| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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thwart
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| v.阻挠，妨碍，反对；adj.横(断的) | |
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prodigy
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| n.惊人的事物，奇迹，神童，天才，预兆 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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ripen
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| vt.使成熟；vi.成熟 | |
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climax
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| n.顶点；高潮；v.(使)达到顶点 | |
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nadir
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| n.最低点，无底 | |
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negation
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| n.否定；否认 | |
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coup
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| n.政变；突然而成功的行动 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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emphatic
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| adj.强调的，着重的；无可置疑的，明显的 | |
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paradox
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| n.似乎矛盾却正确的说法；自相矛盾的人(物) | |
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engrossed
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| adj.全神贯注的 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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eloquent
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| adj.雄辩的，口才流利的；明白显示出的 | |
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54
gunpowder
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| n.火药 | |
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solitude
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| n. 孤独; 独居,荒僻之地,幽静的地方 | |
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treatise
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| n.专著；(专题)论文 | |
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postulates
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| v.假定，假设( postulate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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impurities
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| 不纯( impurity的名词复数 )； 不洁； 淫秽； 杂质 | |
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elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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platitude
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| n.老生常谈，陈词滥调 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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exponent
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| n.倡导者，拥护者；代表人物；指数，幂 | |
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eloquence
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| n.雄辩；口才，修辞 | |
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conflagration
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| n.建筑物或森林大火 | |
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distressing
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| a.使人痛苦的 | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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unwillingly
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| adv.不情愿地 | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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degenerates
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| 衰退，堕落，退化( degenerate的第三人称单数 ) | |
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destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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concurrence
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| n.同意；并发 | |
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thoroughly
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| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
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semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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pervert
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| n.堕落者，反常者；vt.误用，滥用；使人堕落，使入邪路 | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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discreet
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| adj.(言行)谨慎的；慎重的；有判断力的 | |
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rudiments
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| n.基础知识，入门 | |
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multiplication
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| n.增加，增多，倍增；增殖，繁殖；乘法 | |
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dealing
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| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
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candidly
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| adv.坦率地，直率而诚恳地 | |
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pliability
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| n.柔韧性；可弯性 | |
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engrave
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| vt.（在...上）雕刻，使铭记，使牢记 | |
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sterile
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| adj.不毛的，不孕的，无菌的，枯燥的，贫瘠的 | |
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effaced
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| v.擦掉( efface的过去式和过去分词 )；抹去；超越；使黯然失色 | |
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corrupting
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的现在分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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precept
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| n.戒律；格言 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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overflowing
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| n. 溢出物,溢流 adj. 充沛的，充满的 动词overflow的现在分词形式 | |
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outwards
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| adj.外面的，公开的，向外的；adv.向外；n.外形 | |
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animate
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| v.赋于生命，鼓励；adj.有生命的，有生气的 | |
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mischief
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| n.损害，伤害，危害；恶作剧，捣蛋，胡闹 | |
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vivacity
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| n.快活，活泼，精神充沛 | |
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requisites
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| n.必要的事物( requisite的名词复数 ) | |
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96
tout
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| v.推销，招徕；兜售；吹捧，劝诱 | |
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apprenticeship
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| n.学徒身份；学徒期 | |
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sniffs
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| v.以鼻吸气，嗅，闻( sniff的第三人称单数 )；抽鼻子（尤指哭泣、患感冒等时出声地用鼻子吸气）；抱怨，不以为然地说 | |
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chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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speculative
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| adj.思索性的，暝想性的，推理的 | |
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sensuous
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| adj.激发美感的；感官的，感觉上的 | |
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103
implements
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| n.工具( implement的名词复数 )；家具；手段；[法律]履行（契约等）v.实现( implement的第三人称单数 )；执行；贯彻；使生效 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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mien
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| n.风采；态度 | |
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sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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retard
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| n.阻止，延迟；vt.妨碍，延迟，使减速 | |
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instructors
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| 指导者，教师( instructor的名词复数 ) | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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noxious
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| adj.有害的，有毒的；使道德败坏的，讨厌的 | |
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professed
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| 公开声称的，伪称的，已立誓信教的 | |
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incapable
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| adj.无能力的，不能做某事的 | |
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supervision
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| n.监督，管理 | |
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organise
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| vt.组织，安排，筹办 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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linguistic
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| adj.语言的，语言学的 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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119
phenomena
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| n.现象 | |
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consensus
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| n.(意见等的)一致，一致同意，共识 | |
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besetting
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| adj.不断攻击的v.困扰( beset的现在分词 )；不断围攻；镶；嵌 | |
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disciple
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| n.信徒，门徒，追随者 | |
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underlying
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| adj.在下面的，含蓄的，潜在的 | |
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chattering
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| n. （机器振动发出的）咔嗒声，(鸟等)鸣，啁啾 adj. 喋喋不休的，啾啾声的 动词chatter的现在分词形式 | |
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125
vigour
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| （=vigor）n.智力，体力，精力 | |
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fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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accustoming
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| v.（使）习惯于( accustom的现在分词 ) | |
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indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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seminal
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| adj.影响深远的；种子的 | |
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clogging
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| 堵塞，闭合 | |
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inveterate
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| adj.积习已深的，根深蒂固的 | |
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engrossing
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| adj.使人全神贯注的，引人入胜的v.使全神贯注( engross的现在分词 ) | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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exertion
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| n.尽力，努力 | |
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