But when after all a new Art blossomed forth13 which revered14 tragedy as her ancestress and mistress, it was observed with horror that she did indeed bear the features of her mother, but those very features the latter had exhibited in her long death-struggle. It was Euripides who fought this death-struggle of tragedy; the later art is known as the New Attic15 Comedy. In it the degenerate[Pg 87] form of tragedy lived on as a monument of the most painful and violent death of tragedy proper.
This connection between the two serves to explain the passionate16 attachment17 to Euripides evinced by the poets of the New Comedy, and hence we are no longer surprised at the wish of Philemon, who would have got himself hanged at once, with the sole design of being able to visit Euripides in the lower regions: if only he could be assured generally that the deceased still had his wits. But if we desire, as briefly18 as possible, and without professing19 to say aught exhaustive on the subject, to characterise what Euripides has in common with Menander and Philemon, and what appealed to them so strongly as worthy20 of imitation: it will suffice to say that the spectator was brought upon the stage by Euripides. He who has perceived the material of which the Promethean tragic4 writers prior to Euripides formed their heroes, and how remote from their purpose it was to bring the true mask of reality on the stage, will also know what to make of the wholly divergent tendency of Euripides. Through him the commonplace individual forced his way from the spectators' benches to the stage itself; the mirror in which formerly21 only great and bold traits found expression now showed the painful exactness that conscientiously22 reproduces even the abortive23 lines of nature. Odysseus, the typical Hellene of the Old Art, sank, in the hands of the new poets, to the figure of the Gr?culus, who, as the good-naturedly cunning domestic slave, stands henceforth in the centre of dramatic[Pg 88] interest. What Euripides takes credit for in the Aristophanean "Frogs," namely, that by his household remedies he freed tragic art from its pompous24 corpulency, is apparent above all in his tragic heroes. The spectator now virtually saw and heard his double on the Euripidean stage, and rejoiced that he could talk so well. But this joy was not all: one even learned of Euripides how to speak: he prides himself upon this in his contest with ?schylus: how the people have learned from him how to observe, debate, and draw conclusions according to the rules of art and with the cleverest sophistications. In general it may be said that through this revolution of the popular language he made the New Comedy possible. For it was henceforth no longer a secret, how—and with what saws—the commonplace could represent and express itself on the stage. Civic25 mediocrity, on which Euripides built all his political hopes, was now suffered to speak, while heretofore the demigod in tragedy and the drunken satyr, or demiman, in comedy, had determined26 the character of the language. And so the Aristophanean Euripides prides himself on having portrayed27 the common, familiar, everyday life and dealings of the people, concerning which all are qualified28 to pass judgment29. If now the entire populace philosophises, manages land and goods with unheard-of circumspection30, and conducts law-suits, he takes all the credit to himself, and glories in the splendid results of the wisdom with which he inoculated31 the rabble32.
It was to a populace prepared and enlightened[Pg 89] in this manner that the New Comedy could now address itself, of which Euripides had become as it were the chorus-master; only that in this case the chorus of spectators had to be trained. As soon as this chorus was trained to sing in the Euripidean key, there arose that chesslike variety of the drama, the New Comedy, with its perpetual triumphs of cunning and artfulness. But Euripides—the chorus-master—was praised incessantly33: indeed, people would have killed themselves in order to learn yet more from him, had they not known that tragic poets were quite as dead as tragedy. But with it the Hellene had surrendered the belief in his immortality34; not only the belief in an ideal past, but also the belief in an ideal future. The saying taken from the well-known epitaph, "as an old man, frivolous35 and capricious," applies also to aged1 Hellenism. The passing moment, wit, levity36, and caprice, are its highest deities37; the fifth class, that of the slaves, now attains38 to power, at least in sentiment: and if we can still speak at all of "Greek cheerfulness," it is the cheerfulness of the slave who has nothing of consequence to answer for, nothing great to strive for, and cannot value anything of the past or future higher than the present. It was this semblance39 of "Greek cheerfulness" which so revolted the deep-minded and formidable natures of the first four centuries of Christianity: this womanish flight from earnestness and terror, this cowardly contentedness40 with easy pleasure, was not only contemptible41 to them, but seemed to be a specifically anti-Christian sentiment. And we must ascribe[Pg 90] it to its influence that the conception of Greek antiquity42, which lived on for centuries, preserved with almost enduring persistency43 that peculiar44 hectic45 colour of cheerfulness—as if there had never been a Sixth Century with its birth of tragedy, its Mysteries, its Pythagoras and Heraclitus, indeed as if the art-works of that great period did not at all exist, which in fact—each by itself—can in no wise be explained as having sprung from the soil of such a decrepit46 and slavish love of existence and cheerfulness, and point to an altogether different conception of things as their source.
The assertion made a moment ago, that Euripides introduced the spectator on the stage to qualify him the better to pass judgment on the drama, will make it appear as if the old tragic art was always in a false relation to the spectator: and one would be tempted47 to extol48 the radical49 tendency of Euripides to bring about an adequate relation between art-work and public as an advance on Sophocles. But, as things are, "public" is merely a word, and not at all a homogeneous and constant quantity. Why should the artist be under obligations to accommodate himself to a power whose strength is merely in numbers? And if by virtue50 of his endowments and aspirations51 he feels himself superior to every one of these spectators, how could he feel greater respect for the collective expression of all these subordinate capacities than for the relatively52 highest-endowed individual spectator? In truth, if ever a Greek artist treated his public throughout a long life with presumptuousness53 and self-sufficiency, it was Euripides, who,[Pg 91] even when the masses threw themselves at his feet, with sublime54 defiance55 made an open assault on his own tendency, the very tendency with which he had triumphed over the masses. If this genius had had the slightest reverence56 for the pandemonium57 of the public, he would have broken down long before the middle of his career beneath the weighty blows of his own failures. These considerations here make it obvious that our formula—namely, that Euripides brought the spectator upon the stage, in order to make him truly competent to pass judgment—was but a provisional one, and that we must seek for a deeper understanding of his tendency. Conversely, it is undoubtedly58 well known that ?schylus and Sophocles, during all their lives, indeed, far beyond their lives, enjoyed the full favour of the people, and that therefore in the case of these predecessors59 of Euripides the idea of a false relation between art-work and public was altogether excluded. What was it that thus forcibly diverted this highly gifted artist, so incessantly impelled60 to production, from the path over which shone the sun of the greatest names in poetry and the cloudless heaven of popular favour? What strange consideration for the spectator led him to defy, the spectator? How could he, owing to too much respect for the public —dis-respect the public?
Euripides—and this is the solution of the riddle61 just propounded—felt himself, as a poet, undoubtedly superior to the masses, but not to two of his spectators: he brought the masses upon the stage; these two spectators he revered as the[Pg 92] only competent judges and masters of his art: in compliance62 with their directions and admonitions, he transferred the entire world of sentiments, passions, and experiences, hitherto present at every festival representation as the invisible chorus on the spectators' benches, into the souls of his stage-heroes; he yielded to their demands when he also sought for these new characters the new word and the new tone; in their voices alone he heard the conclusive63 verdict on his work, as also the cheering promise of triumph when he found himself condemned64 as usual by the justice of the public.
Of these two, spectators the one is—Euripides himself, Euripides as thinker, not as poet. It might be said of him, that his unusually large fund of critical ability, as in the case of Lessing, if it did not create, at least constantly fructified65 a productively artistic66 collateral67 impulse. With this faculty68, with all the clearness and dexterity69 of his critical thought, Euripides had sat in the theatre and striven to recognise in the masterpieces of his great predecessors, as in faded paintings, feature and feature, line and line. And here had happened to him what one initiated70 in the deeper arcana of ?schylean tragedy must needs have expected: he observed something incommensurable in every feature and in every line, a certain deceptive71 distinctness and at the same time an enigmatic profundity72, yea an infinitude, of background. Even the clearest figure had always a comet's tail attached to it, which seemed to suggest the uncertain and the inexplicable73. The same twilight74 shrouded75 the structure of the drama, especially the significance[Pg 93] of the chorus. And how doubtful seemed the solution of the ethical76 problems to his mind! How questionable77 the treatment of the myths! How unequal the distribution of happiness and misfortune! Even in the language of the Old Tragedy there was much that was objectionable to him, or at least enigmatical; he found especially too much pomp for simple affairs, too many tropes and immense things for the plainness of the characters. Thus he sat restlessly pondering in the theatre, and as a spectator he acknowledged to himself that he did not understand his great predecessors. If, however, he thought the understanding the root proper of all enjoyment78 and productivity, he had to inquire and look about to see whether any one else thought as he did, and also acknowledged this incommensurability. But most people, and among them the best individuals, had only a distrustful smile for him, while none could explain why the great masters were still in the right in face of his scruples79 and objections. And in this painful condition he found that other spectator, who did not comprehend, and therefore did not esteem80, tragedy. In alliance with him he could venture, from amid his lonesomeness, to begin the prodigious81 struggle against the art of ?schylus and Sophocles—not with polemic82 writings, but as a dramatic poet, who opposed his own conception of tragedy to the traditional one.
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1
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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irreconcilable
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| adj.（指人）难和解的，势不两立的 | |
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tragically
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| adv. 悲剧地，悲惨地 | |
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tragic
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| adj.悲剧的，悲剧性的，悲惨的 | |
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posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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progeny
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| n.后代，子孙；结果 | |
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courageous
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| adj.勇敢的，有胆量的 | |
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mien
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| n.风采；态度 | |
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wailing
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| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
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stunted
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| adj.矮小的；发育迟缓的 | |
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emaciated
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| adj.衰弱的，消瘦的 | |
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crumbs
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| int. (表示惊讶)哎呀 n. 碎屑 名词crumb的复数形式 | |
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forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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revered
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| v.崇敬，尊崇，敬畏( revere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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attic
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| n.顶楼，屋顶室 | |
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passionate
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| adj.热情的，热烈的，激昂的，易动情的，易怒的，性情暴躁的 | |
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attachment
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| n.附属物，附件；依恋；依附 | |
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briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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professing
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| 声称( profess的现在分词 )； 宣称； 公开表明； 信奉 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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conscientiously
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| adv.凭良心地；认真地，负责尽职地；老老实实 | |
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abortive
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| adj.不成功的，发育不全的 | |
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pompous
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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civic
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| adj.城市的，都市的，市民的，公民的 | |
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determined
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| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
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portrayed
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| v.画像( portray的过去式和过去分词 )；描述；描绘；描画 | |
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qualified
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| adj.合格的，有资格的，胜任的，有限制的 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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circumspection
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| n.细心，慎重 | |
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inoculated
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| v.给…做预防注射( inoculate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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rabble
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| n.乌合之众，暴民；下等人 | |
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incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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frivolous
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| adj.轻薄的；轻率的 | |
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levity
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| n.轻率，轻浮，不稳定，多变 | |
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deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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attains
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的第三人称单数 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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semblance
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| n.外貌，外表 | |
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contentedness
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contemptible
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| adj.可鄙的，可轻视的，卑劣的 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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43
persistency
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| n. 坚持(余辉, 时间常数) | |
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peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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hectic
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| adj.肺病的；消耗热的；发热的；闹哄哄的 | |
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decrepit
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| adj.衰老的，破旧的 | |
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47
tempted
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| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
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48
extol
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| v.赞美，颂扬 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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50
virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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51
aspirations
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| 强烈的愿望( aspiration的名词复数 )； 志向； 发送气音； 发 h 音 | |
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52
relatively
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| adv.比较...地，相对地 | |
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53
presumptuousness
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| n.自以为是，专横，冒失 | |
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54
sublime
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| adj.崇高的，伟大的；极度的，不顾后果的 | |
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55
defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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56
reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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57
pandemonium
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| n.喧嚣，大混乱 | |
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58
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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59
predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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60
impelled
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| v.推动、推进或敦促某人做某事( impel的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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61
riddle
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| n.谜，谜语，粗筛；vt.解谜，给…出谜，筛，检查，鉴定，非难，充满于；vi.出谜 | |
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62
compliance
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| n.顺从；服从；附和；屈从 | |
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63
conclusive
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| adj.最后的，结论的；确凿的，消除怀疑的 | |
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64
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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65
fructified
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| v.结果实( fructify的过去式和过去分词 )；使结果实，使多产，使土地肥沃 | |
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66
artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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67
collateral
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| adj.平行的；旁系的；n.担保品 | |
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faculty
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| n.才能；学院，系；(学院或系的)全体教学人员 | |
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dexterity
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| n.(手的)灵巧，灵活 | |
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70
initiated
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| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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71
deceptive
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| adj.骗人的，造成假象的，靠不住的 | |
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72
profundity
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| n.渊博；深奥，深刻 | |
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73
inexplicable
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| adj.无法解释的，难理解的 | |
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74
twilight
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| n.暮光，黄昏；暮年，晚期，衰落时期 | |
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shrouded
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| v.隐瞒( shroud的过去式和过去分词 )；保密 | |
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76
ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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questionable
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| adj.可疑的，有问题的 | |
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enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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scruples
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| n.良心上的不安( scruple的名词复数 )；顾虑，顾忌v.感到于心不安，有顾忌( scruple的第三人称单数 ) | |
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80
esteem
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| n.尊敬，尊重；vt.尊重，敬重；把…看作 | |
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prodigious
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| adj.惊人的，奇妙的；异常的；巨大的；庞大的 | |
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polemic
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| n.争论，论战 | |
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