“It is a long strip of unutterably rugged3 country; stony4 barren heights, deep abrupt5 valleys seamed by occasional torrents6; the farms represented by a patch of corn on a hillside or a scrap7 of cultivation8 on a narrow strip of alluvial9 soil alongside a mountain stream. No highways, save those made by us; the village roads—mere tracks straggling over hills 2and among the roughest ravines—always difficult and often dangerous. The dwelling10 places, fortified11 towers or caves among the hills.” The Pathan territories occupy many thousand square miles of mountainous country through which flow the Gomal, the Kurram, the Zhob, the Kabul and other smaller rivers with their tributaries12, the principal tributaries of the Kabul River being the Chitral, the Bara, the Swat and the Kalpani. The rainfall in this region is scanty13 and uncertain, and agriculture can only properly be carried on in those tracts14 watered by these rivers.
The language of the Pathan is called Pushtu or Pukhtu, according as it is the softer Kandahari dialect or the hard guttural speech of the Peshawar Valley, the line which separates the two being the northern boundary of the Khattak tract15 in Kohat and the south-east corner of the Peshawar District. It is only since the fourteenth century that Pushtu has attained16 the dignity of a written language. And what of the men who speak it? What is a Pathan?
Pathan Descent
In India all Pushtu-speaking people come under this designation—a corruption17 of the word “Pukhtun”—the term being frequently used to denote equally the Pathan proper, the Afghan, the Tajik, the Hazara and the Ghilzai; but, strictly18 speaking, the title is not really applicable to any of the four last, who, though related to the true Pathan by historical, geographical19 and ethnological association, are none the less distinct peoples. There is great conflict of opinion as to the original stock from which the Pathans have sprung—the 3traditions of the people themselves are conflicting, vague and misleading, but the Pathans believe that they are descended20 from Saul, the first King of the Jews. They speak of themselves as “Beni Israel,” the children of Israel, and the greybeards of the Pathan tribes are fond of tracing their story back to Ibrahim, Isak and Yakub. However far-fetched and mainly traditionary the connection may be, there is, as discussed by Bellew, a savour of Israelitish custom and an often remarkable21 similarity of name still surviving—Amazites, Moabites and Hittites live again in Amazai, Muhibwal and Hotiwal, to be found on Mount Morah, the hill Pehor, and the plain of Galilee (Jalala); there is the valley of Sudum; the observance of the “Passover,” offering sin and thank offerings, or driving off the scapegoat22 laden23 with the sins of the people—with many other religious and social observances which are Jewish rather than Islamic in their origin. It would seem that the Pathan race is closely allied24 to the Afghan on the one side, and, though perhaps not so closely, to certain tribes of Aryan Indians on the other. (The language is a mixture of partly Persian, partly Indian—Prakrit—origin.) The Pathan may be indeed described as an Indian Afghan, and the probabilities are that he represents an earlier eastern emigration of certain sections of the same tribes as have given birth to the Afghan; and from this point of view the Pathan and the Afghan are by origin one and the same. Whatever view is correct, there can be no doubt that the Pathan differs from the Afghan in the possession of 4certain Indian affinities25 not present in the other. Whether these are due to an admixture of Indian blood, or whether they are merely the result of close and prolonged political and social contact with India, is a matter of no very particular importance.
Ibbetson favours the theory that the Pathans are in the main a race of Indian extraction, that is, that the Pathan stock is decidedly Indian despite the admixture of foreign blood. According to him, the true Pathans are the modern representatives of an Aryan Indian race called by Herodotus the Pactiyae, which gave birth to many of the tribes represented to-day in and on the borders of the Peshawar Valley. According to this view the Pathans proper are those Pathan tribes which have a decidedly Pactiyan stock, in which the preponderating27 racial element is Indian; while the mixed Pactiyan and foreign tribes in which the stock is not Indian, but Afghan, Turk or Scythian, as the case may be, are Pathan by virtue28 of their Pactiyan blood, as well as by their geographical location, association, customs and language. But that the stock is in the main Afghan rather than Indian, seems borne out by the fact that from the earliest times of which historical records exist, we find the Pathan ever arrayed against and despising the Indian—evincing an antagonism29 which is not merely practical and political, but one of ideals and sentiment. On the other hand, although the Pathan tribes have had constant and bloody30 feuds32 with the Afghans, in their brief periods of peace they display a marked similarity of sentiment, ideals and aims, while the 5mental characteristics of the Pathan also approximate much more closely to the Afghan than to those of any purely33 Indian tribe.
Of the other races and tribes to which the term Pathan is loosely applied34, the Ghilzais are a race of mixed Turkish and Persian descent, which has now become assimilated with the Afghans by sentiment and association. The Tajiks, another to which the term Pathan is applied, are of pure Persian origin, and are believed to be the remnants of certain Persian tribes who once inhabited Afghanistan before the advent35 of the Afghans by whom they were subdued36. The Tajiks still retain their Persian speech. The Hazaras are Persian-speaking Tartars who have long settled among the Afghans, but who hold among them a subordinate and dependent position.
Character
The character of the Pathan is a favourite theme of disparagement38 amongst the frontier officials of the last half-century and more. In 1855, Mr. Temple, then Secretary to the Chief Commissioner39 of the Punjab, wrote thus of them: “Now these tribes are savages40—noble savages perhaps—and not without some tincture of virtue and generosity41, but still absolutely barbarians42 nevertheless.... They have nominally43 a religion, but Muhammadanism, as understood by them, is no better, or perhaps is actually worse, than the creeds45 of the wildest race on earth. In their eyes the one great commandment is blood for blood, and fire and sword for all infidels.... They are superstitious46 and priest-ridden. But the priests are as ignorant as they are bigoted47, and use their 6influence simply for preaching crusades against unbelievers, and inculcate the doctrine48 of rapine and bloodshed against the defenceless people of the plain.... They are a sensual race. They are very avaricious49; for gold they will do almost anything, except betray a guest. They are thievish and predatory to the last degree. The Pathan mother offers prayers that her son may be a successful robber. They are utterly50 faithless to public engagements; it would never even occur to their minds that an oath on the Koran was binding51, if against their own interests.... They are fierce and bloodthirsty ... they are perpetually at war with each other. Every tribe and section of a tribe has its internecine52 wars, every family its hereditary53 blood-feuds, and every individual his personal foes55. There is hardly a man whose hands are unstained. Every person counts up his murders. Each tribe has a debtor56 and creditor57 account with its neighbours, life for life.... They consider retaliation58 and revenge to be the strongest of all obligations. They possess gallantry and courage themselves, and admire such qualities in others.... To their minds hospitality is the first of virtues59. Any person who can make his way into their dwellings60 will not only be safe, but will be kindly61 received. But as soon as he has left the roof of his entertainer he may be robbed and killed.”
Code of Honour
Mr. Ibbetson wrote of the Pathan in 1881: “The true Pathan is perhaps the most barbaric of all the races with which we are brought into contact in the Punjab.... He is bloodthirsty, cruel and vindictive62 7in the highest degree; he does not know what truth or faith is, insomuch that the saying Afghan be iman (i.e. an Afghan is without conscience) has passed into a proverb among his neighbours; and though he is not without courage of a sort, and is often curiously63 reckless of his life, he would scorn to face an enemy whom he could stab from behind, or to meet him on equal terms if it were possible to take advantage of him, however meanly. It is easy to convict him out of his own mouth; here are some of his proverbs: ‘a Pathan’s enmity smoulders like a dung fire’; ‘a cousin’s tooth breaks upon a cousin’;[1] ‘keep a cousin poor but use him’; ‘when he is little play with him; when he is grown up he is a cousin, fight him’; ‘speak good words to an enemy very softly; gradually destroy him root and branch.’ At the same time he has a code of honour which he strictly observes, and which he quotes with pride under the name of Pukhtunwali. It imposes on him three chief obligations—Nanawatai, or the right of asylum64, which compels him to shelter and protect even an enemy who comes as a suppliant65; Badal, or the necessity for revenge by retaliation; and Mailmastai, or openhanded hospitality to all who may demand it. And of these three perhaps the last is the greatest. And there is a charm about him, especially about the leading men, which almost makes one forget his treacherous66 nature. As the proverb says—‘the Pathan is one moment a saint, and the next a devil.’ 8For centuries he has been, on our frontier at least, subject to no man. He leads a wild, free, active life in the rugged fastnesses of his mountains; and there is an air of masculine independence about him which is refreshing67 in a country like India. He is a bigot of the most fanatical type, exceedingly proud and extraordinarily68 superstitious.” Holdich says of the Pathan that “he will shoot his own relations just as soon as the relations of his enemy—possibly sooner—and he will shoot them from behind. Yet the individual Pathan may be trusted to be true to his salt and to his engagements.”
Of one Pathan tribe Macgregor said that “there is no doubt, like other Pathans, they would not shrink from any falsehood, however atrocious, to gain an end. Money could buy their services for the foulest69 deed; cruelty of the most revolting kind would mark their actions to a wounded or helpless foe54, as much as cowardice70 would stamp them against determined71 resistance.” While Mr. Elsmie has spoken as follows of his five years’ experience as a Commissioner and Judge among the Pathans of the Peshawar border: “Crime of the worst conceivable kind is a matter of almost daily occurrence; murder in all its phases, unblushing assassination72 in broad daylight before a crowd of witnesses; the carefully planned secret murder of the sleeping victim at dead of night, murder by robbers, by rioters, by poisoners, by boys, and by women sword in hand. Blood always crying for blood, revenge looked upon as a virtue, the heritage of retribution passed on as a solemn duty from 9father to son. It would seem that the spirit of murder is latent in the heart of nearly every man in the valley.” But, on the other hand, Oliver tells us in Across the Border, that the Pathan has sometimes been condemned73 in what appear too sweeping74 terms, and that “there is a sort of charm about the better sort that inclines many people to forget his treacherous nature, and even his ‘vice is sometimes by action dignified75.’”
Probably what Lieut. Enriquez says about these tribesmen in his Pathan Borderland describes them with, on the whole, more justice, if less vehemence77, than have some of those other writers from whom quotations78 have here been made. “The Pathan,” he says, “is not so black as he is painted. It should not be overlooked that most of the tribes have only been established three hundred years in their present territories, and that their habits are not really much worse than were those of the various English tribes during the first few centuries after their final settlement. The conditions of a feudal79 system, under which each baron80 lived in his own castle, and waged constant war with his neighbours over disputes relating to land and women, are simply being repeated again across our border. For stories of gross treachery, or cold-blooded murder and inter-family strife81, we have only to turn back the pages of our own history book. In fact, it seems quite unfair to judge the Pathan according to twentieth century standards. For him it is still the tenth century. Moreover, it is ungenerous to assert that there are not many noble 10exceptions amongst them.... When you meet a Pathan, you meet a man like yourself.... He will never allow you to abuse him, but makes up for it amply by never making you wish to do so. There is perhaps no native of India who is less irritating to our nerves, and his ideas of tact26 seem to run on quite the same lines as our own.... He takes his independence for granted, and very seldom parades it in the garb82 of rudeness.”
Take him for all in all, there is in the Pathan much to like, a good deal to respect and much to detest83. He is very susceptible84 to the personal influence of Englishmen who are strong, resolute85 and fearless—men of the type of Nicholson, Abbott, Cavagnari, Battye and many others. In our service he has usually been a loyal and devoted86 sepoy, and no better instance of the loyalty87 of the Pathan soldier can be given than is furnished by that of the small body of Khyber Rifles in 1897, who, as Holdich has told us, “maintained British honour in the Khyber, while 9,500 British troops about the Peshawar frontier looked on.”
Blood-feuds
The Pathan enlists88 freely into our service—there are at the present moment something like eleven thousand Pathans in the Indian Army, and probably the recruiting among the tribesmen was never brisker than during the few months immediately following the close of the operations in Tirah of 1897–98—and he will march anywhere and fight anyone against whom he may be led. Over and over again have Pathans fought in our ranks against 11their fellow-tribesmen and their own homes. Not only against fathers and brothers, but even against the still more potent89 religious appeals from the local Ghazis. One thing, however, the Pathan recruit does not give up, “but brings with him to his regiment90, keeps through his service, must have leave to look after, will resign promotion91 to gratify, and looks forward to retiring to thoroughly92 enjoy—and that is—his cherished feud31.” If he has not got one when he joins, he may inherit one which may become just as binding, though it concerns people he has not seen for years, and hardly knew when he left home. In India the white man wants leave to get married, he is sick, he needs a change, or to avoid a bad station—for the Pathan soldier there is only one class of “urgent private affairs,” but for this he must have leave. Everyone knows for what purpose he goes; it is the only reason when the refusal of leave would justify93 desertion. In many of the Punjab regiments94 which recruit Pathans there are cases of trans-frontier soldiers who will serve together in all amity95 for years, but between whom is so bitter a feud that they must take their furlough at different times, since, if they went together, not all would come back.
As to the personal appearance of “the raw material,” here is a picture drawn from life by Oliver: “The style of the Tribesman is a little after the manner of Rob Roy—‘my foot is on my native heath,’ and ‘am I not a Pathan’? Even when he leaves his native heath behind, he takes his manners with him. He will come down, a stalwart, manly-looking ruffian, 12with frank and open manners, rather Jewish features, long hair plentifully96 oiled under a high turban, with a loose tunic97, blue for choice—the better to hide the dirt—worn very long, baggy98 drawers, a lungi or sash across his shoulders, grass sandals, a sheepskin coat with the hair inside, thickly populated, a long heavy knife, and a rifle, if he is allowed to carry either. He is certain to be filthy99 and he may be ragged100, but he will saunter into a Viceregal durbar as proud as Lucifer, and with an air of unconcern a diplomatist might envy.”
Leaders
The Pathan tribes are partly agriculturists and partly nomads101, but their migrations102 are on a small and restricted scale, being no more than annual moves within their own limits from one grazing ground to another, or from their homes among the hills to the warmer and lower valleys. Beyond and upon our frontier the Pathans live in fortified villages, to which are attached stone towers in commanding positions serving as watch towers and places of refuge for the inhabitants. A large number of the men of each tribe obtain their livelihood103 as petty merchants or traders, carrying goods in caravans104 between India, Afghanistan and Central Asia. These wandering traders are called Powindahs, a term derived105 from the Persian word Parwindah, which signifies a bale of goods. The villages are divided into several distinct allotments of sub-divisions called Kandis, according to the number of the sub-divisions of the tribe residing in it. Thus in each village each group of families which goes to form a Khel, or clan106, has its own Kandi, at the head 13of which is a Malik, who acts as its judge, manager or administrator107. In each Kandi, again, there is a Jumaat, or mosque108, under a Mullah, or priest, and an assembly room, called hujra, where the residents meet to discuss their affairs, and where visitors and travellers are sheltered. At the head of each clan is a chief styled Khan, to whom the Maliks are subordinate, but the tribesmen being intensely independent and impatient of control, it is not surprising that neither Maliks nor Khans enjoy any real power. They may be said indeed to possess influence rather than power. All matters of general tribal109 interest are settled by the decision of a jirgah or council of Maliks and in this the real controlling authority resides, the Khan, or tribal chief, merely acting110 as president of the tribal jirgah, as their leader in time of war, and during peace as their accredited111 agent for inter-tribal communication. But among the Pathans there can be very little like ordered government, and as a matter of fact the several clans112 decide their disputes independently of any central controlling authority. The office of Malik and Khan is usually hereditary, but by no means always.
It is not very uncommon113 for families of one tribe or clan to quarrel with their brethren, and leaving their own tribe, to claim the protection of a neighbouring one. They then become hamsayas, or “dwellers beneath the shade,” and secure protection in return for obedience114. With the Pathans the action of this custom is chiefly confined to traders, menials and other dependents of foreign extraction, who are protected by, but not received into, the tribe.
14The great majority of the Pathan tribes are Sunni[2] Muhammadans of a bigoted sort, the exception being the Turis and some of the Bangash and Orakzai clansmen, who are Shiahs. Of the different dignitaries of the Pathan Church there is no occasion here to speak further than to remark that the Mullah, to whom allusion115 has already been made, is the ordinary, hard working parish priest, whose duties are to attend to the services of the Church, teach the creed44, and look after the schools. He is the most important factor in Pathan life and his influence is enormous, despite the fact, as Dr. Pennell points out, “that there is no priesthood in Islam,” and that according to its tenets, there is no act of worship and no religious rite37 which may not, in the absence of a Mullah, be equally well performed by any pious116 layman117. Since, however, “knowledge has been almost limited to the priestly class, it is only natural that in a village, where the Mullahs are almost the only men who can lay claim to anything more than the most rudimentary learning, they should have the people of the village entirely118 in their own control.” The general security in which the Mullah lives is the best possible evidence of the deference119 accorded to his office. “He is almost the only man,” says Oliver, “whose life is sacred from the casual bullet or the hasty knife, for whose blood the Pathan tariff120 does not provide a rate.”
15His flock is generally ignorant of everything connected with the Muhammadan religion beyond its most elementary doctrines121. In matters of faith the Pathans confine themselves to the belief that there is a God, a prophet, a resurrection, and a day of judgment. They know there is a Koran, but are probably wholly ignorant of its contents. Their practice is un-Islamic. Though they repeat every day that there is one God only who is worthy122 of worship, they almost invariably prefer to worship some saint or tomb. Indeed, superstition123 is a more appropriate term for the ordinary belief of the people than the name of religion.
Gar and Samil
Since mention has above been made of the religious divisions of the tribesmen, I may perhaps briefly124 allude125 to their political factions126, since reports from beyond the border make frequent mention of the feuds of Gar and Samil. In the fourteenth century a chief of the Bangash tribe, Ismail by name, had two sons, Gar and Samil, whose quarrels led to the tribe being split up into the two great factions which still exist under these names. Bangash or Bankash means “root-destroyer,” and this was adopted or bestowed127 as the tribal name by reason of the enmity aroused between the rival factions. The distinction then established still remains128, and affects almost all the surrounding tribes; and since some Sunnis by religion are Samil in politics, and some Shiahs are Gar, while sometimes both cases are reversed, it may easily be realised how prolific129 are the causes for private quarrels and tribal feuds beyond the Bloody Border.
Of so turbulent a race what Temple said about them 16in 1855 might with almost equal truth have been repeated of them annually130 up to the present time: “They have kept up old quarrels, or picked new ones with our subjects in the plains and valleys near the frontier; they have descended from the hills and fought these battles out in our territory; they have plundered131 and burnt our villages and slain132 our subjects; they have committed minor133 robberies and isolated134 murders without number; they have often levied135 blackmail136 from our villages; they have intrigued137 with the disaffected138 everywhere and tempted139 our loyal subjects to rebel; and they have for ages regarded the plain as their preserve and its inhabitants as their game. When inclined for cruel sport they sally forth140 to rob and murder, and occasionally to take prisoners into captivity141 for ransom142. They have fired upon our own troops, and even killed our officers in our own territories. They have given an asylum to every malcontent143 or proclaimed criminal who can escape from British justice. They traverse at will our territories, enter our villages, trade in our markets; but few British subjects, and no servant of the British Government, would dare to enter their country on any account whatever.”
Since the 400 miles of our borderland, comprised in the stretch from Buner on the right to Waziristan on the left, is, as computed144 by the Commander-in-Chief in India in 1897, inhabited by 200,000 first-rate fighting men, of the quarrelsome character above described—every man at all times ready and eager for blood-letting—it would be as well now to recount 17the measures which the Government of India adopts for their restraint; to state the composition and general distribution of the instruments by means of which the peace of the frontier is more or less preserved; and to note the manner in which offences committed by independent tribes beyond the border are punished.
Defence of the Frontier
For the defence of the border, and to prevent the incursion of armed robbers, the system generally followed—with some recent modifications—has been the maintenance of a line of fortified posts along the frontier, garrisoned145 by regulars and militia147. In the year 1884 there were fifty-four such posts situated148 in the Hazara, Yusafzai, Kohat, Bannu, Dera Ismail Khan, Dera Ghazi Khan and Rajanpur districts, and of these sixteen were held by the Punjab Frontier Force, twenty-six by militia, and the remainder by combined parties of both militia and regulars. In those days the Punjab Frontier Force was generally responsible—a responsibility which endured until 1903—for the military defence of the frontier, with the exception of the Peshawar district. The force was approximately 15,000 strong, and consisted of four regiments of cavalry149, the Guides (cavalry and infantry150), four mountain batteries, one garrison146 battery, and eleven infantry battalions151, the whole commanded by a Brigadier-General. At that time it was immediately under the orders of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, but it was a few years later placed under the Commander-in-Chief in India. With the gradual extension of the frontier, and the general 18forward movement made within recent years, it became apparent that the Punjab Frontier Force could no longer remain a local and also a border force, and that in any comprehensive scheme of frontier defence other regiments of the Indian army must take their share. In 1903, then, the Punjab Frontier Force was abolished.
Under Lord Curzon’s rule in India a change was inaugurated in the system of frontier defence. Regular troops have been gradually withdrawn152, as far as possible, from advanced trans-frontier positions, and have been concentrated in large centres within easy reach. Their places on the border have been taken by various corps153 of militia, military police, and levies154 raised locally; communications have been improved; strategic railways have crept further forward; another bridge has been thrown across the Indus; and the frontier is now defended by the Peshawar and Quetta divisions and the Kohat, Derajat and Bannu brigades, moveable columns being held always ready to move out at a moment’s notice from Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan. The general sphere of action prescribed for each of these columns is as under:
Peshawar Column, The Khyber and the Malakand.
Kohat Column, The Kurram.
Bannu Column, The Tochi.
Dera Ismail Khan Column, Waziristan.
It remains to note the manner in which offences committed by independent tribes across the border are punished. The most simple way of dealing155 with 19a refractory156 tribe, and in many cases the most effectual, is to inflict157 a fine and demand compensation for plundered property or for lives lost. When the tribe is dependent upon trade with British territory, or when a portion resides within British limits, or is easily accessible from the plains to an attack by a military force, the demand for payment of fine or compensation is generally acceded158 to, and, being paid, the tribe is again received into favour. Should the demand be refused, hostages are demanded, or members of the tribe and their property found within British territory are seized, until such time as the compensation and fine are paid. Against some tribes, as in the case of the Afridis of the Kohat Pass in 1876–77, a blockade is an effective measure of punishment. It can, however, only be employed against such tribes as trade with British territory, and, while it lasts, any member of the offending tribe found within our border is at once seized and detained. This means of punishment has often been found effectual, and if effectual, it is preferable to a military expedition, which often leaves behind it bitter memories in the destruction of property and loss of life. Last as a measure of punishment comes the military expedition, which is only resorted to in exceptional circumstances, and when every other means of coercing159 a hostile tribe has failed.
Coercive Measures
The necessity, in certain circumstances, for military expeditions has been admitted by the civil authorities of the Punjab in the following statement made in 1864 by Mr. Davies, Secretary to the Punjab 20Government: “The despatch160 of an expedition into the hills is always in the nature of a judicial161 act. It is the delivery of a sentence, and the infliction162 of a punishment for international offences. It is, as a rule, not in assertion of any disputed right, or in ultimate arbitration163 of any contested claim of its own, that the British Government resolves on such measures, but simply as the only means by which retribution can be obtained for acknowledged crimes by its neighbours, and by which justice can be satisfied or future outrages164 prevented. In the extreme cases in which expeditions are unavoidable, they are analogous165 to legal penalties for civil crime—evils in themselves inevitable166 from deficiencies of preventive police, but redeemed167 by their deterrent168 effects. Considerations of expense, of military risk, of possible losses, of incurring169 antagonism and combination against us on the part of the tribes, all weigh heavily against expeditions; and to set them aside, there must be irresistible170 obligation to protect and to vindicate171 the outraged172 rights of subjects whom we debar from the revenge and retaliation they formerly173 practised.”
At the present moment rather over 9000 Pathans are serving in our militias174, border military police and levies, while considerably175 more than 10,000 are in the ranks of the regular regiments of the Indian army; a certain number, too, are serving in the forces maintained by native chiefs. Considering the readiness with which the Pathan accepts military service, it cannot be said that these numbers are 21high, but the fact would seem to be that while some tribes are supplying us with more recruits than they can well afford, others have scarcely been drawn upon at all, and many races along the Pathan borderland remain still altogether unexploited.
The N.W.F. Province
[3]The North-West Frontier Province is, with the exception of Behar, Chota Nagpur and Orissa, the youngest of the provinces into which British India is divided, while in respect of population and extent of territory administered according to British law, it is also the smallest. It lies between the 31st and 36th degrees of latitude176 and the 69th and 74th degrees of longitude177; its total length, as the crow flies, is over 400 miles, its average breadth is from 100 to 150 miles, the total area comprised within its limits being roughly 38,000 square miles. Only 13,000 square miles, however, are under full British law and administration, and 25,000 square miles are occupied by tribes who are under British political control, but who maintain their internal or municipal independence. The British territory part of the province is divided into the five districts of Hazara, Peshawar, Kohat, Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan, whose western boundary, known as the administrative178 border, is a sinuous179 line extending for some 600 miles. On the other side of this administrative or inner provincial180 border dwell the municipally independent tribes who 22are under the political control of the Chief Commissioner, a control which he exercises with the aid of the officers in charge of the political agencies, viz. Swat, Dir and Chitral, the Khyber, the Kurram, and Northern and Southern Waziristan. These agencies have been described as the tentacles181 of civilised order, stretching into a mass of barbarism and savagery182; and the remainder of the space beyond the administrative border and as far as the “Durand line” or “the outer provincial border,” separating the British and Afghan spheres of influence, is occupied by the independent tribes. The length of this outer border cannot be less than 800 miles.
The population of the five British districts is about 2,200,000, and of the outer portion of the province probably a million and a half.
After the border war of 1897 a narrow-gauge183 line was laid from Nowshera, on the Kabul River, to the foot of the Malakand; constructed in the first instance for military reasons, it rapidly developed into an important artery184 of commerce, justifying185 its conversion186 from a narrow to a broad gauge. Another railway which, in 1897, stopped on the left bank of the Indus at Kushalgarh, now crosses the Indus by a bridge, and has been extended via Kohat and Hangu to Thal, at the southern end of the Kurram Valley. A third line to the base of the hills is under construction; it will be taken over the Indus at Kalabagh and carried to Bannu. When the Thal railway has been extended to the head of the Kurram Valley; when a short line has been constructed in the 23Hazara district; and when a lateral187 branch has been provided from Bannu to Tank and Dera Ismail Khan, the province will be fairly well equipped with railways of a distinct commercial and strategic value.
Frontier Policy
A perusal188 of the chapters which follow will probably make it apparent that the general policy of the Government of India in regard to the frontier tribes is, and has been—as well described by a former Chief Commissioner of the North-West Frontier Province—“a forward one only when necessity compels, and stationary189 where circumstances permit.”
点击
收听单词发音
收听单词发音 |
1
drawn
|
|
| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
2
tangle
|
|
| n.纠缠；缠结；混乱；v.(使)缠绕；变乱 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
3
rugged
|
|
| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
4
stony
|
|
| adj.石头的，多石头的，冷酷的，无情的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
5
abrupt
|
|
| adj.突然的，意外的；唐突的，鲁莽的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
6
torrents
|
|
| n.倾注；奔流( torrent的名词复数 )；急流；爆发；连续不断 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
7
scrap
|
|
| n.碎片；废料；v.废弃，报废 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
8
cultivation
|
|
| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
9
alluvial
|
|
| adj.冲积的；淤积的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
10
dwelling
|
|
| n.住宅，住所，寓所 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
11
fortified
|
|
| adj. 加强的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
12
tributaries
|
|
| n. 支流 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
13
scanty
|
|
| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
14
tracts
|
|
| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
15
tract
|
|
| n.传单，小册子，大片(土地或森林) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
16
attained
|
|
| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
17
corruption
|
|
| n.腐败，堕落，贪污 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
18
strictly
|
|
| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
19
geographical
|
|
| adj.地理的；地区(性)的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
20
descended
|
|
| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
21
remarkable
|
|
| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
22
scapegoat
|
|
| n.替罪的羔羊，替人顶罪者；v.使…成为替罪羊 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
23
laden
|
|
| adj.装满了的；充满了的；负了重担的；苦恼的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
24
allied
|
|
| adj.协约国的；同盟国的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
25
affinities
|
|
| n.密切关系( affinity的名词复数 )；亲近；（生性）喜爱；类同 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
26
tact
|
|
| n.机敏，圆滑，得体 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
27
preponderating
|
|
| v.超过，胜过( preponderate的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
|
28
virtue
|
|
| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
29
antagonism
|
|
| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
30
bloody
|
|
| adj.非常的的；流血的；残忍的；adv.很；vt.血染 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
31
feud
|
|
| n.长期不和；世仇；v.长期争斗；世代结仇 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
32
feuds
|
|
| n.长期不和，世仇( feud的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
33
purely
|
|
| adv.纯粹地，完全地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
34
applied
|
|
| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
35
advent
|
|
| n.(重要事件等的)到来，来临 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
36
subdued
|
|
| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
37
rite
|
|
| n.典礼，惯例，习俗 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
38
disparagement
|
|
| n.轻视，轻蔑 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
39
commissioner
|
|
| n.（政府厅、局、处等部门）专员，长官，委员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
40
savages
|
|
| 未开化的人，野蛮人( savage的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
41
generosity
|
|
| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
42
barbarians
|
|
| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
43
nominally
|
|
| 在名义上，表面地； 应名儿 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
44
creed
|
|
| n.信条；信念，纲领 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
45
creeds
|
|
| （尤指宗教）信条，教条( creed的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
46
superstitious
|
|
| adj.迷信的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
47
bigoted
|
|
| adj.固执己见的，心胸狭窄的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
48
doctrine
|
|
| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
49
avaricious
|
|
| adj.贪婪的，贪心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
50
utterly
|
|
| adv.完全地，绝对地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
51
binding
|
|
| 有约束力的，有效的，应遵守的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
52
internecine
|
|
| adj.两败俱伤的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
53
hereditary
|
|
| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
54
foe
|
|
| n.敌人，仇敌 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
55
foes
|
|
| 敌人，仇敌( foe的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
56
debtor
|
|
| n.借方，债务人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
57
creditor
|
|
| n.债仅人，债主，贷方 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
58
retaliation
|
|
| n.报复，反击 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
59
virtues
|
|
| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
60
dwellings
|
|
| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
61
kindly
|
|
| adj.和蔼的，温和的，爽快的；adv.温和地，亲切地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
62
vindictive
|
|
| adj.有报仇心的，怀恨的，惩罚的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
63
curiously
|
|
| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
64
asylum
|
|
| n.避难所，庇护所，避难 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
65
suppliant
|
|
| adj.哀恳的；n.恳求者，哀求者 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
66
treacherous
|
|
| adj.不可靠的，有暗藏的危险的；adj.背叛的，背信弃义的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
67
refreshing
|
|
| adj.使精神振作的，使人清爽的，使人喜欢的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
68
extraordinarily
|
|
| adv.格外地；极端地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
69
foulest
|
|
| adj.恶劣的( foul的最高级 )；邪恶的；难闻的；下流的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
70
cowardice
|
|
| n.胆小，怯懦 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
71
determined
|
|
| adj.坚定的；有决心的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
72
assassination
|
|
| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
73
condemned
|
|
| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
74
sweeping
|
|
| adj.范围广大的，一扫无遗的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
75
dignified
|
|
| a.可敬的，高贵的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
76
judgment
|
|
| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
77
vehemence
|
|
| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
78
quotations
|
|
| n.引用( quotation的名词复数 )；[商业]行情（报告）；（货物或股票的）市价；时价 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
79
feudal
|
|
| adj.封建的，封地的，领地的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
80
baron
|
|
| n.男爵；(商业界等)巨头，大王 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
81
strife
|
|
| n.争吵，冲突，倾轧，竞争 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
82
garb
|
|
| n.服装，装束 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
83
detest
|
|
| vt.痛恨，憎恶 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
84
susceptible
|
|
| adj.过敏的，敏感的；易动感情的，易受感动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
85
resolute
|
|
| adj.坚决的，果敢的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
86
devoted
|
|
| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
87
loyalty
|
|
| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
88
enlists
|
|
| v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的第三人称单数 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
89
potent
|
|
| adj.强有力的，有权势的；有效力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
90
regiment
|
|
| n.团，多数，管理；v.组织，编成团，统制 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
91
promotion
|
|
| n.提升，晋级；促销，宣传 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
92
thoroughly
|
|
| adv.完全地，彻底地，十足地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
93
justify
|
|
| vt.证明…正当(或有理)，为…辩护 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
94
regiments
|
|
| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
95
amity
|
|
| n.友好关系 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
96
plentifully
|
|
| adv. 许多地，丰饶地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
97
tunic
|
|
| n.束腰外衣 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
98
baggy
|
|
| adj.膨胀如袋的，宽松下垂的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
99
filthy
|
|
| adj.卑劣的；恶劣的，肮脏的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
100
ragged
|
|
| adj.衣衫褴褛的，粗糙的，刺耳的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
101
nomads
|
|
| n.游牧部落的一员( nomad的名词复数 )；流浪者；游牧生活；流浪生活 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
102
migrations
|
|
| n.迁移，移居( migration的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
103
livelihood
|
|
| n.生计，谋生之道 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
104
caravans
|
|
| （可供居住的）拖车（通常由机动车拖行）( caravan的名词复数 )； 篷车； （穿过沙漠地带的）旅行队（如商队） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
105
derived
|
|
| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
106
clan
|
|
| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
107
administrator
|
|
| n.经营管理者，行政官员 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
108
mosque
|
|
| n.清真寺 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
109
tribal
|
|
| adj.部族的，种族的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
110
acting
|
|
| n.演戏，行为，假装；adj.代理的，临时的，演出用的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
111
accredited
|
|
| adj.可接受的；可信任的；公认的；质量合格的v.相信( accredit的过去式和过去分词 )；委托；委任；把…归结于 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
112
clans
|
|
| 宗族( clan的名词复数 )； 氏族； 庞大的家族； 宗派 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
113
uncommon
|
|
| adj.罕见的，非凡的，不平常的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
114
obedience
|
|
| n.服从，顺从 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
115
allusion
|
|
| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
116
pious
|
|
| adj.虔诚的；道貌岸然的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
117
layman
|
|
| n.俗人，门外汉，凡人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
118
entirely
|
|
| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
119
deference
|
|
| n.尊重，顺从；敬意 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
120
tariff
|
|
| n.关税，税率；(旅馆、饭店等)价目表，收费表 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
121
doctrines
|
|
| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
122
worthy
|
|
| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
123
superstition
|
|
| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
124
briefly
|
|
| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
125
allude
|
|
| v.提及，暗指 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
126
factions
|
|
| 组织中的小派别，派系( faction的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
127
bestowed
|
|
| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
128
remains
|
|
| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
129
prolific
|
|
| adj.丰富的，大量的；多产的，富有创造力的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
130
annually
|
|
| adv.一年一次，每年 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
131
plundered
|
|
| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
132
slain
|
|
| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
133
minor
|
|
| adj.较小(少)的，较次要的；n.辅修学科；vi.辅修 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
134
isolated
|
|
| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
135
levied
|
|
| 征（兵）( levy的过去式和过去分词 )； 索取； 发动（战争）； 征税 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
136
blackmail
|
|
| n.讹诈，敲诈，勒索，胁迫，恫吓 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
137
intrigued
|
|
| adj.好奇的，被迷住了的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的过去式)；激起…的兴趣或好奇心；“intrigue”的过去式和过去分词 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
138
disaffected
|
|
| adj.（政治上）不满的，叛离的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
139
tempted
|
|
| v.怂恿（某人）干不正当的事；冒…的险（tempt的过去分词） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
140
forth
|
|
| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
141
captivity
|
|
| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
142
ransom
|
|
| n.赎金，赎身；v.赎回，解救 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
143
malcontent
|
|
| n.不满者，不平者；adj.抱不平的，不满的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
144
computed
|
|
| adj.[医]计算的，使用计算机的v.计算，估算( compute的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
145
garrisoned
|
|
| 卫戍部队守备( garrison的过去式和过去分词 )； 派部队驻防 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
146
garrison
|
|
| n.卫戍部队；驻地，卫戍区；vt.派(兵)驻防 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
147
militia
|
|
| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
148
situated
|
|
| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
149
cavalry
|
|
| n.骑兵；轻装甲部队 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
150
infantry
|
|
| n.[总称]步兵(部队) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
151
battalions
|
|
| n.（陆军的）一营（大约有一千兵士）( battalion的名词复数 )；协同作战的部队；军队；（组织在一起工作的）队伍 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
152
withdrawn
|
|
| vt.收回；使退出；vi.撤退，退出 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
153
corps
|
|
| n.(通信等兵种的)部队；(同类作的)一组 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
154
levies
|
|
| （部队）征兵( levy的名词复数 )； 募捐； 被征募的军队 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
155
dealing
|
|
| n.经商方法，待人态度 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
156
refractory
|
|
| adj.倔强的，难驾驭的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
157
inflict
|
|
| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
158
acceded
|
|
| v.（正式）加入( accede的过去式和过去分词 )；答应；（通过财产的添附而）增加；开始任职 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
159
coercing
|
|
| v.迫使做( coerce的现在分词 )；强迫；（以武力、惩罚、威胁等手段）控制；支配 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
160
despatch
|
|
| n./v.(dispatch)派遣；发送；n.急件；新闻报道 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
161
judicial
|
|
| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
162
infliction
|
|
| n.（强加于人身的）痛苦，刑罚 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
163
arbitration
|
|
| n.调停，仲裁 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
164
outrages
|
|
| 引起…的义愤，激怒( outrage的第三人称单数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
165
analogous
|
|
| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
166
inevitable
|
|
| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
167
redeemed
|
|
| adj. 可赎回的，可救赎的 动词redeem的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
168
deterrent
|
|
| n.阻碍物，制止物；adj.威慑的，遏制的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
169
incurring
|
|
| 遭受，招致，引起( incur的现在分词 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
170
irresistible
|
|
| adj.非常诱人的，无法拒绝的，无法抗拒的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
171
vindicate
|
|
| v.为…辩护或辩解，辩明；证明…正确 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
172
outraged
|
|
| a.震惊的，义愤填膺的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
173
formerly
|
|
| adv.从前，以前 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
174
militias
|
|
| n.民兵组织，民兵( militia的名词复数 ) | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
175
considerably
|
|
| adv.极大地；相当大地；在很大程度上 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
176
latitude
|
|
| n.纬度，行动或言论的自由(范围)，(pl.)地区 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
177
longitude
|
|
| n.经线，经度 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
178
administrative
|
|
| adj.行政的，管理的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
179
sinuous
|
|
| adj.蜿蜒的，迂回的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
180
provincial
|
|
| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
181
tentacles
|
|
| n.触手( tentacle的名词复数 )；触角；触须；触毛 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
182
savagery
|
|
| n.野性 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
183
gauge
|
|
| v.精确计量；估计；n.标准度量；计量器 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
184
artery
|
|
| n.干线，要道；动脉 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
185
justifying
|
|
| 证明…有理( justify的现在分词 )； 为…辩护； 对…作出解释； 为…辩解（或辩护） | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
186
conversion
|
|
| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
187
lateral
|
|
| adj.侧面的，旁边的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
188
perusal
|
|
| n.细读，熟读；目测 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
|
189
stationary
|
|
| adj.固定的，静止不动的 | |
参考例句： |
|
|
|
| 欢迎访问英文小说网 |